The proficiency strands understanding, fluency, problem-solving and reasoning are an integral part of mathematics content across the three content strands: number and algebra, measurement and geometry, and statistics and probability. The proficiencies reinforce the significance of working mathematically within the content and describe how the content is explored or developed. They provide the language to build in the developmental aspects of the learning of mathematics. The achievement standards reflect the content and encompass the proficiencies.

At this year level:

• understanding includes applying the four operations to algebraic fractions, finding unknowns in formulas after substitution, making the connection between equations of relations and their graphs, comparing simple and compound interest in financial contexts and determining probabilities of two- and three-step experiments;
• fluency includes factorising and expanding algebraic expressions, using a range of strategies to solve equations and using calculations to investigate the shape of data sets;
• problem-solving includes calculating the surface area and volume of a diverse range of prisms to solve practical problems, finding unknown lengths and angles using applications of trigonometry, using algebraic and graphical techniques to find solutions to simultaneous equations and inequalities and investigating independence of events;
• reasoning includes formulating geometric proofs involving congruence and similarity, interpreting and evaluating media statements and interpreting and comparing data sets.

Money and financial mathematics

Connect the compound interest formula to repeated applications of simple interest using appropriate digital technologies.

Patterns and algebra

Factorise algebraic expressions by taking out a common algebraic factor.

Simplify algebraic products and quotients using index laws.

Apply the four operations to simple algebraic fractions with numerical denominators.

Expand binomial products and factorise monic quadratic expressions using a variety of strategies.

Substitute values into formulas to determine an unknown.

Linear and non-linear relationships

Solve problems involving linear equations, including those derived from formulas.

Solve linear inequalities and graph their solutions on a number line.

Solve linear simultaneous equations, using algebraic and graphical techniques, including using digital technology.

Solve problems involving parallel and perpendicular lines.

Explore the connection between algebraic and graphical representations of relations such as simple quadratics, circles and exponentials using digital technology as appropriate.

Solve linear equations involving simple algebraic fractions.

Solve simple quadratic equations using a range of strategies.

Advanced

Real numbers

Define rational and irrational numbers and perform operations with surds and fractional indices.

Use the definition of a logarithm to establish and apply the laws of logarithms.

Patterns and algebra

Investigate the concept of a polynomial and apply the factor and remainder theorems to solve problems.

Linear and non-linear relationships

Describe, interpret and sketch parabolas, hyperbolas, circles and exponential functions and their transformations.

Solve simple exponential equations.

Apply understanding of polynomials to sketch a range of curves and describe the features of these curves from their equation.

Factorise monic and non-monic quadratic expressions and solve a wide range of quadratic equations derived from a variety of contexts.

Using units of measurement

Solve problems involving surface area and volume for a range of prisms, cylinders and composite solids.

Geometric reasoning

Formulate proofs involving congruent triangles and angle properties.

Apply logical reasoning, including the use of congruence and similarity, to proofs and numerical exercises involving plane shapes.

Pythagoras and trigonometry

Solve right-angled triangle problems including those involving direction and angles of elevation and depression.

Advanced

Using units of measurement

Solve problems involving surface area and volume of right pyramids, right cones, spheres and related composite solids.

Geometric reasoning

Prove and apply angle and chord properties of circles.

Pythagoras and trigonometry

Establish the sine, cosine and area rules for any triangle and solve related problems.

Use the unit circle to define trigonometric functions, and graph them with and without the use of digital technologies (ACMMG274)

Solve simple trigonometric equations (ACMMG275)

Apply Pythagoras’ Theorem and trigonometry to solving three-dimensional problems in right-angled triangles (ACMMG276)

Chance

Describe the results of two- and three-step chance experiments, both with and without replacements, assign probabilities to outcomes and determine probabilities of events. Investigate the concept of independence.

Use the language of ‘if ….then, ‘given’, ‘of’, ‘knowing that’ to investigate conditional statements and identify common mistakes in interpreting such language.

Data representation and interpretation

Determine quartiles and interquartile range.

Construct and interpret box plots and use them to compare data sets.

Compare shapes of box plots to corresponding histograms and dot plots.

Use scatter plots to investigate and comment on relationships between two numerical variables.

Investigate and describe bivariate numerical data where the independent variable is time.

Evaluate statistical reports in the media and other places by linking claims to displays, statistics and representative data.

Advanced

Chance

Investigate reports of studies in digital media and elsewhere for information on their planning and implementation.

Data representation and interpretation

Calculate and interpret the mean and standard deviation of data and use these to compare data sets.

Use information technologies to investigate bivariate numerical data sets. Where appropriate use a straight line to describe the relationship allowing for variation.

By the end of Year 10, students recognise the connection between simple and compound interest. They solve problems involving linear equations and inequalities. They make the connections between algebraic and graphical representations of relations. Students solve surface area and volume problems relating to composite solids. They recognise the relationships between parallel and perpendicular lines. Students apply deductive reasoning to proofs and numerical exercises involving plane shapes. They compare data sets by referring to the shapes of the various data displays. They describe bivariate data where the independent variable is time. Students describe statistical relationships between two continuous variables. They evaluate statistical reports.

Students expand binomial expressions and factorise monic quadratic expressions. They find unknown values after substitution into formulas. They perform the four operations with simple algebraic fractions. Students solve simple quadratic equations and pairs of simultaneous equations. They use triangle and angle properties to prove congruence and similarity. Students use trigonometry to calculate unknown angles in right-angled triangles. Students list outcomes for multi-step chance experiments and assign probabilities for these experiments. They calculate quartiles and inter-quartile ranges.

The science inquiry skills and science as a human endeavour strands are described across a two-year band. In their planning, schools and teachers refer to the expectations outlined in the achievement standard and also to the content of the science understanding strand for the relevant year level to ensure that these two strands are addressed over the two-year period. The three strands of the curriculum are interrelated and their content is taught in an integrated way. The order and detail in which the content descriptions are organised into teaching and learning programs are decisions to be made by the teacher.

Incorporating the key ideas of science

In the Year 10 curriculum students explore systems at different scales and connect microscopic and macroscopic properties to explain phenomena. Students explore the biological, chemical, geological and physical evidence for different theories, such as the theories of natural selection and the Big Bang.

Students develop their understanding of atomic theory to understand relationships within the periodic table. They understand that motion and forces are related by applying physical laws. They learn about the relationships between aspects of the living, physical and chemical world that are applied to systems on a local and global scale and this enables them to predict how changes will affect equilibrium within these systems.

Biological sciences

Transmission of heritable characteristics from one generation to the next involves DNA and genes.

The theory of evolution by natural selection explains the diversity of living things and is supported by a range of scientific evidence.

Chemical sciences

The atomic structure and properties of elements are used to organise them in the Periodic Table.

Different types of chemical reactions are used to produce a range of products and can occur at different rates.

Earth and space sciences

The universe contains features including galaxies, stars and solar systems, and the Big Bang theory can be used to explain the origin of the universe.

Global systems, including the carbon cycle, rely on interactions involving the biosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere.

Physical sciences

Energy conservation in a system can be explained by describing energy transfers and transformations.

The motion of objects can be described and predicted using the laws of physics.

Nature and development of science

Scientific understanding, including models and theories, is contestable and is refined over time through a process of review by the scientific community.

Advances in scientific understanding often rely on technological advances and are often linked to scientific discoveries.

Use and influence of science

People use scientific knowledge to evaluate whether they accept claims, explanations or predictions, and advances in science can affect people’s lives, including generating new career opportunities.

Values and needs of contemporary society can influence the focus of scientific research.

Questioning and predicting

Formulate questions or hypotheses that can be investigated scientifically.

Planning and conducting

Plan, select and use appropriate investigation types, including field work and laboratory experimentation, to collect reliable data; assess risk and address ethical issues associated with these methods.

Select and use appropriate equipment, including digital technologies, to collect and record data systematically and accurately.

Processing and analysing data and information

Analyse patterns and trends in data, including describing relationships between variables and identifying inconsistencies.

Use knowledge of scientific concepts to draw conclusions that are consistent with evidence.

Evaluating

Evaluate conclusions, including identifying sources of uncertainty and possible alternative explanations, and describe specific ways to improve the quality of the data.

Critically analyse the validity of information in primary and secondary sources, and evaluate the approaches used to solve problems.

Communicating

Communicate scientific ideas and information for a particular purpose, including constructing evidence-based arguments and using appropriate scientific language, conventions and representations.

By the end of Year 10, students analyse how the periodic table organises elements and use it to make predictions about the properties of elements. They explain how chemical reactions are used to produce particular products and how different factors influence the rate of reactions. They explain the concept of energy conservation and represent energy transfer and transformation within systems. They apply relationships between force, mass and acceleration to predict changes in the motion of objects. Students describe and analyse interactions and cycles within and between Earth’s spheres. They evaluate the evidence for scientific theories that explain the origin of the universe and the diversity of life on Earth. They explain the processes that underpin heredity and evolution. Students analyse how the models and theories they use have developed over time and discuss the factors that prompted their review.

Students develop questions and hypotheses and independently design and improve appropriate methods of investigation, including field work and laboratory experimentation. They explain how they have considered reliability, safety, fairness and ethical actions in their methods and identify where digital technologies can be used to enhance the quality of data. When analysing data, selecting evidence and developing and justifying conclusions, they identify alternative explanations for findings and explain any sources of uncertainty. Students evaluate the validity and reliability of claims made in secondary sources with reference to currently held scientific views, the quality of the methodology and the evidence cited. They construct evidence-based arguments and select appropriate representations and text types to communicate science ideas for specific purposes.

The modern world and Australia

The Year 10 curriculum provides a study of the history of the modern world and Australia from 1918 to the present, with an emphasis on Australia in its global context. The twentieth century became a critical period in Australia’s social, cultural, economic and political development. The transformation of the modern world during a time of political turmoil, global conflict and international cooperation provides a necessary context for understanding Australia’s development, its place within the Asia-Pacific region and its global standing.

The content provides opportunities to develop historical understanding through key concepts, including evidence, continuity and change, cause and effect, perspectives, empathy, significance and contestability. These concepts may be investigated within a particular historical context to facilitate an understanding of the past and to provide a focus for historical inquiries.

The history content at this year level involves two strands: historical knowledge and understanding, and historical skills. These strands are interrelated and have been developed to be taught in an integrated way, and in ways that are appropriate to specific local contexts. The order and detail in which they are taught are programming decisions.

Key inquiry questions

A framework for developing students’ historical knowledge, understanding and skills is provided by inquiry questions through the use and interpretation of sources. The key inquiry questions for Year 10 are:

• How did the nature of global conflict change during the twentieth century?
• What were the consequences of World War II? How did these consequences shape the modern world?
• How was Australian society affected by other significant global events and changes in this period?

Knowledge and Understanding

Overview of the modern world and Australia

The following content is taught as part of an overview for the historical period. It is not intended to be taught in depth. Overview content identifies important features of the period (1918 to the present) as part of an expansive chronology that helps students understand broad patterns of historical change. As such, the overview provides the broader context for the teaching of depth study content and can be built into various parts of a teaching and learning program. This means that overview content can be used to give students an introduction to the historical period; to make the links to and between the depth studies, and to consolidate understanding through a review of the period.

Overview content for the Modern World and Australia includes the following:

• the inter-war years between World War I and World War II, including the Treaty of Versailles, the Roaring Twenties and the Great Depression;
• continuing efforts post-World War II to achieve lasting peace and security in the world, including Australia’s involvement in UN peacekeeping;
• the major movements for rights and freedom in the world and the achievement of independence by former colonies;
• the nature of the Cold War and Australia’s involvement in Cold War and post-Cold War conflicts (Korea, Vietnam, The Gulf Wars, Afghanistan), including the rising influence of Asian nations since the end of the Cold War;
• developments in technology, public health, longevity and standard of living during the twentieth century, and concern for the environment and sustainability.

Depth studies

There are three depth studies for this historical period. For each depth study, there are up to three electives that focus on a particular society, event, movement or development. It is expected that ONE elective will be studied in detail. The content in each depth study elective is designed to allow detailed study of specific aspects of this historical period. As part of a teaching and learning program, depth study content can be integrated with overview content and/or integrated with other depth study electives.

1 World War II (1939-45)

Students investigate wartime experiences through a study of World War II in depth. This includes a study of the causes, events, outcome and broader impact of the conflict as an episode in world history, and the nature of Australia’s involvement.

Overview of the causes and course of World War II.

Examination of significant events of World War II, including the Holocaust and use of the atomic bomb.

Experiences of Australians during World War II (such as Prisoners of War (POWs), the Battle of Britain, Kokoda, the Fall of Singapore).

The impact of World War II, with a particular emphasis on the Australian home front, including the changing roles of women and use of wartime government controls (conscription, manpower controls, rationing and censorship).

The significance of World War II to Australia’s international relationships in the twentieth century, with particular reference to the United Nations, Britain, the USA and Asia.

2 Rights and freedoms (1945 – the present)

Students investigate struggles for human rights in depth. This will include how rights and freedoms have been ignored, demanded or achieved in Australia and in the broader world context.

The origins and significance of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, including Australia’s involvement in the development of the declaration.

Background to the struggle of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples for rights and freedoms before 1965, including the 1938 Day of Mourning and the Stolen Generations.

The US civil rights movement and its influence on Australia.

The significance of the following for the civil rights of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples: 1962 right to vote federally; 1967 Referendum; Reconciliation; Mabo decision; Bringing Them Home Report (the Stolen Generations), the Apology.

Methods used by civil rights activists to achieve change for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, and the role of ONE individual or group in the struggle.

The continuing nature of efforts to secure civil rights and freedoms in Australia and throughout the world, such as the Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (2007).

3 The globalising world

Students investigate one major global influence that has shaped Australian society in depth, including the development of the global influence during the twentieth century. Students study ONE of these electives: Popular culture or Migration experiences or The environment movement.

Popular culture (1945 – present)

The nature of popular culture in Australia at the end of World War II, including music, film and sport.

Developments in popular culture in post-war Australia and their impact on society, including the introduction of television and rock ’n’ roll.

Changing nature of the music, film and television industry in Australia during the post-war period, including the influence of overseas developments (such as Hollywood, Bollywood and the animation film industry in China and Japan).

Australia’s contribution to international popular culture (music, film, television, sport).

Continuity and change in beliefs and values that have influenced the Australian way of life.

Migration experiences (1945 – present)

The waves of post-World War II migration to Australia, including the influence of significant world events.

The impact of changing government policies on Australia’s migration patterns, including abolition of the White Australia Policy, ‘Populate or Perish’.

The impact of at least ONE world event or development and its significance for Australia, such as the Vietnam War and Indochinese refugees.

The contribution of migration to Australia’s changing identity as a nation and to its international relationships.

The environment movement (1960s – present)

The background to environmental awareness, including the nineteenth century National Parks movement in America and Australia.

The intensification of environmental effects in the twentieth century as a result of population increase, urbanisation, increasing industrial production and trade.

The growth and influence of the environment movement within Australia and overseas, and developments in ideas about the environment including the concept of ‘sustainability’.

Significant events and campaigns that contributed to popular awareness of environmental issues, such as the campaign to prevent the damming of Australia’s Gordon River, the nuclear accident at Chernobyl and the Jabiluka mine controversy in 1998.

Responses of governments, including the Australian Government, and international organisations to environmental threats since the 1960s, including deforestation and climate change.

Skills

Chronology, terms and concepts

Use chronological sequencing to demonstrate the relationship between events and developments in different periods and places.

Use historical terms and concepts.

Historical questions and research

Identify and select different kinds of questions about the past to inform historical inquiry.

Evaluate and enhance these questions.

Identify and locate relevant sources, using ICT and other methods.

Analysis and use of sources

Identify the origin, purpose and context of primary and secondary sources.

Process and synthesise information from a range of sources for use as evidence in an historical argument.

Evaluate the reliability and usefulness of primary and secondary sources.

Perspectives and interpretations

Identify and analyse the perspectives of people from the past.

Identify and analyse different historical interpretations (including their own).

Explanation and communication

Develop texts, particularly descriptions and discussions that use evidence from a range of sources that are referenced.

Select and use a range of communication forms (oral, graphic, written) and digital technologies.

Achievement Standard

By the end of Year 10, students refer to key events, the actions of individuals and groups, and beliefs and values to explain patterns of change and continuity over time. They analyse the causes and effects of events and developments and explain their relative importance. They explain the context for people’s actions in the past. Students explain the significance of events and developments from a range of perspectives. They explain different interpretations of the past and recognise the evidence used to support these interpretations.

Students sequence events and developments within a chronological framework, and identify relationships between events across different places and periods of time. When researching, students develop, evaluate and modify questions to frame a historical inquiry. They process, analyse and synthesise information from a range of primary and secondary sources and use it as evidence to answer inquiry questions. Students analyse sources to identify motivations, values and attitudes. When evaluating these sources, they analyse and draw conclusions about their usefulness, taking into account their origin, purpose and context. They develop and justify their own interpretations about the past. Students develop texts, particularly explanations and discussions, incorporating historical argument. In developing these texts and organising and presenting their arguments, they use historical terms and concepts, evidence identified in sources, and they reference these sources.

Introduction

There are two units of study in the Year 10 curriculum for Geography: ‘Environmental change and management’ and ‘Geographies of human wellbeing’.

‘Environmental change and management’ focuses on investigating environmental geography through an in-depth study of a specific environment. The unit begins with an overview of the environmental functions that support all life, the major challenges to their sustainability, and the environmental world views – including those of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples – that influence how people perceive and respond to these challenges. Students investigate a specific type of environment and environmental change in Australia and one other country. They apply human–environment systems thinking to understand the causes and consequences of the change and geographical concepts and methods to evaluate and select strategies to manage the change.

‘Geographies of human wellbeing’ focuses on investigating global, national and local differences in human wellbeing between places. This unit examines the different concepts and measures of human wellbeing, and the causes of global differences in these measures between countries. Students explore spatial differences in wellbeing within and between countries, and evaluate the differences from a variety of perspectives. They explore programs designed to reduce the gap between differences in wellbeing. These distinctive aspects of human wellbeing are investigated using studies drawn from Australia, India and across the world as appropriate.

The content of this year level is organised into two strands: geographical knowledge and understanding, and geographical inquiry and skills. These strands are interrelated and have been developed to be taught in an integrated manner, and in ways that are appropriate to specific local contexts. The order and detail in which they are taught are programming decisions.

Key inquiry questions

A framework for developing students’ geographical knowledge, understanding and skills is provided through the inclusion of inquiry questions and specific inquiry skills, including the use and interpretation of maps, photographs and other representations of geographical data.

The key inquiry questions for Year 10 are:

• How can the spatial variation between places and changes in environments be explained?
• What management options exist for sustaining human and natural systems into the future?
• How do world views influence decisions on how to manage environmental and social change?

Knowledge and Understanding

Unit 1: Environmental change and management

Human-induced environmental changes that challenge sustainability.

Environmental world views of people and their implications for environmental management.

The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’ approaches to custodial responsibility and environmental management in different regions of Australia.

Select ONE of the following types of environment as the context for study: land (e.g. forests, deserts, grasslands, farmland), inland water, coast, marine or urban. A comparative study of examples selected from Australia and at least one other country should be included.

The application of systems thinking to understanding the causes and likely consequences of the environmental change being investigated.

The application of geographical concepts and methods to the management of the environmental change being investigated.

The application of environmental economic and social criteria in evaluating management responses to the change.

Unit 2: Geographies of human wellbeing

Different ways of measuring and mapping human wellbeing and development, and how these can be applied to measure differences between places.

Reasons for spatial variations between countries in selected indicators of human wellbeing.

Issues affecting development of places and their impact on human wellbeing, drawing on a study from a developing country or region in Africa, South America or the Pacific Islands.

Reasons for, and consequences of, spatial variations in human wellbeing on a regional scale within India or another country of the Asia region.

Reasons for, and consequences of, spatial variations in human wellbeing in Australia at the local scale.

The role of international and national government and non-government organisations’ initiatives in improving human wellbeing in Australia and other countries.

Skills

Observing, questioning and planning

Develop geographically significant questions and plan an inquiry that identifies and applies appropriate geographical methodologies and concepts.

Collecting, recording, evaluating and representing

Evaluate sources for their reliability, bias and usefulness and select, collect, record and organise relevant geographical data and information, using ethical protocols, from a range of appropriate primary and secondary sources.

Represent multi-variable data in a range of appropriate forms, for example scatter plots, tables, field sketches and annotated diagrams, with and without the use of digital and spatial technologies.

Represent spatial distribution of geographical phenomena by constructing special purpose maps that conform to cartographic conventions, using spatial technologies as appropriate.

Interpreting, analysing and concluding

Interpret and analyse multi-variable data and other geographical information using qualitative and quantitative methods, and digital and spatial technologies as appropriate, to make generalisations and inferences, propose explanations for patterns, trends, relationships and anomalies, and predict outcomes.

Apply geographical concepts to synthesise information from various sources and draw conclusions based on the analysis of data and information, taking into account alternative points of view.

Identify how geographical information systems (GIS) might be used to analyse geographical data and make predictions.

Communicating

Present findings, arguments and explanations in a range of appropriate communication forms, selected for their effectiveness and to suit audience and purpose; using relevant geographical terminology, and digital technologies as appropriate.

Reflecting and responding

Reflect on and evaluate findings of an inquiry to propose individual and collective action in response to a contemporary geographical challenge, taking account of environmental, economic, political and social considerations; and explain the predicted outcomes and consequences of their proposal.

Achievement Standard

By the end of Year 10, students explain how interactions between geographical processes at different scales change the characteristics of places. Students identify, analyse and explain significant interconnections between people, places and environments and explain changes that result from these interconnections and their consequences. They predict changes in the characteristics of places and environments over time, across space and at different scales and explain the predicted consequences of change. They evaluate alternative views on a geographical challenge and alternative strategies to address this challenge using environmental, economic, political and social criteria and draw a reasoned conclusion.

Students use initial research to develop and modify geographically significant questions to frame an inquiry. They critically evaluate a range of primary and secondary sources to select and collect relevant, reliable and unbiased geographical information and data. Students record and represent multi-variable data in of the most appropriate digital and non-digital forms, including a range of graphs and maps that use suitable scales and comply with cartographic conventions. They use a range of methods and digital technologies to interpret and analyse maps, data and other information to make generalisations and inferences, propose explanations for significant patterns, trends, relationships and anomalies across time and space and at different scales, and predict outcomes. They analyse and synthesise data and other information to draw reasoned conclusions, taking into account alternative perspectives. Students present findings, arguments and explanations using relevant geographical terminology and graphic representations and digital technologies in a range of selected and appropriate communication forms. They evaluate their findings and propose action in response to a contemporary geographical challenge, taking account of environmental, economic, political and social considerations. They explain the predicted outcomes and consequences of their proposal.

Introduction

The Year 10 curriculum develops student understanding of Australia’s system of government through comparison with another system of government in the Asian region. Students examine Australia’s roles and responsibilities within the international context, such as its involvement with the United Nations. Students also study the purpose and work of the High Court. They investigate the values and practices that enable a democratic society to be sustained.

The civics and citizenship content at this year level involves two strands: civics and citizenship knowledge and understanding, and civics and citizenship skills. These strands are interrelated and have been developed to be taught in an integrated way, and in ways that are appropriate to specific local contexts. The order and detail in which they are taught are programming decisions.

Key inquiry questions

A framework for developing students’ civics and citizenship knowledge, understanding and skills at this year level is provided by the following key questions:

• How is Australia’s democracy defined and shaped by the global context?
• How are government policies shaped by Australia’s international legal obligations?
• What are the features of a resilient democracy?

Knowledge and Understanding

Government and democracy

The key features and values of Australia’s system of government compared with at least ONE other system of government in the Asia region.

The Australian Government’s role and responsibilities at a global level, for example provision of foreign aid, peacekeeping, participation in international organisations and the United Nations.

Laws and citizens

The role of the High Court, including in interpreting the Constitution.

How Australia’s international legal obligations shape Australian law and government policies, including in relation to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

Citizenship, diversity and identity

The challenges to and ways of sustaining a resilient democracy and cohesive society.

Skills

Questioning and research

Develop, select and evaluate a range of questions to investigate Australia’s political and legal systems.

Identify, gather and sort information and ideas from a range of sources and reference as appropriate.

Analysis, synthesis and interpretation

Critically evaluate information and ideas from a range of sources in relation to civics and citizenship topics and issues.

Account for different interpretations and points of view.

Problem-solving and decision-making

Recognise and consider multiple perspectives and ambiguities, and use strategies to negotiate and resolve contentious issues.

Use democratic processes to reach consensus on a course of action relating to a civics or citizenship issue and plan for that action.

Communication and reflection

Present evidence-based civics and citizenship arguments using subject-specific language.

Reflect on their role as a citizen in Australian, regional and global contexts.

Achievement Standard

By the end of Year 10, students compare and evaluate the key features and values of systems of government, and analyse the Australian Government’s global roles and responsibilities. They analyse the role of the High Court and explain how Australia’s international legal obligations influence law and government policy. Students evaluate a range of factors that sustain democratic societies.

When researching, students evaluate a range of questions to investigate Australia’s political and legal systems and critically analyse information gathered from different sources for relevance, reliability and omission. They account for and evaluate different interpretations and points of view on civics and citizenship issues. When planning for action, students take account of multiple perspectives and ambiguities, use democratic processes, and negotiate solutions to an issue. Students develop and present evidenced-based arguments incorporating different points of view on civics and citizenship issues. They use appropriate texts, subject-specific language and concepts. They evaluate ways they can be active and informed citizens in different contexts.

Introduction

The Year 10 curriculum gives students the opportunity to further develop their understanding of economics and business concepts by considering Australia’s economic performance and standard of living. The ways governments manage economic performance to improve living standards is explored, along with the reasons why economic performance and living standards differ within and between economies. Students explore the nature of externalities and why the government intervenes to ensure that prices reflect the depletion of resources or costs to society. Students examine the consequences of decisions and the responses of business to changing economic conditions, including the way they manage their workforce.

The economics and business content at this year level involves two strands: economics and business knowledge and understanding, and economics and business skills. These strands are interrelated and have been developed to be taught in an integrated way, and in ways that are appropriate to specific local contexts. The order and detail in which they are taught are programming decisions.

Students are expected to be taught the content through contemporary issues, events and/or case studies. Teachers will design programs that cover different contexts (personal, local, national, regional, global) and meet the needs of their students.

Key inquiry questions

A framework for developing students’ economics and business knowledge, understanding and skills at this year level is provided by the following key questions:

• How is the performance of an economy measured?
• Why do variations in economic performance in different economies exist?
• What strategies do governments use to manage economic performance?
• How do governments, businesses and individuals respond to changing economic conditions?

Knowledge and Understanding

Indicators of economic performance and how Australia’s economy is performing.

The links between economic performance and living standards, and how and why variations exist within and between economies.

The ways that governments manage economic performance to improve living standards.

Factors that influence major consumer and financial decisions and the short- and long-term consequences of these decisions.

The ways businesses respond to changing economic conditions and improve productivity through organisational management and workforce management.

Skills

Questioning and research

Develop questions and hypotheses about an economic or business issue or event, and plan and conduct an investigation.

Gather relevant and reliable data and information from a range of digital, online and print sources.

Interpretation and analysis

Analyse data and information in different formats to explain cause-and-effect relationships, make predictions and illustrate alternative perspectives.

Economic reasoning, decision-making and application

Generate a range of viable options in response to an economic or business issue or event, use cost-benefit analysis and appropriate criteria to recommend and justify a course of action and predict the potential consequences of the proposed action.

Apply economics and business knowledge, skills and concepts in familiar, new and hypothetical situations.

Communication and reflection

Present reasoned arguments and evidence-based conclusions in a range of appropriate formats using economics and business conventions, language and concepts.

Reflect on the intended and unintended consequences of economic and business decisions.

Achievement Standard

By the end of Year 10, students explain why and how governments manage economic performance to improve living standards. They give explanations for variations in economic performance and standards of living within and between economies. They analyse factors that influence major consumer and financial decisions and explain the short- and long-term effects of these decisions. They explain how businesses respond to changing economic conditions and improve productivity. Students evaluate the effect of organisational and workforce management on business performance.

When researching, students develop questions and formulate hypotheses to frame an investigation of an economic or business issue or event. They gather and analyse reliable data and information from different sources to identify trends, explain relationships and make predictions. Students generate alternative responses to an issue, taking into account multiple perspectives. They use cost-benefit analysis and appropriate criteria to propose and justify a course of action. They apply economics and business knowledge, skills and concepts to familiar, unfamiliar and complex hypothetical problems. Students develop and present evidence-based conclusions and reasoned arguments incorporating different points of view. They use appropriate texts, subject-specific language, conventions and concepts. They analyse the intended and unintended effects of economic and business decisions and the potential consequences of alternative actions.

In the Australian Curriculum, The Arts is a learning area that draws together related but distinct art forms. While these art forms have close relationships and are often used in interrelated ways, each involves different approaches to arts practices and critical and creative thinking that reflect distinct bodies of knowledge, understanding and skills. The curriculum examines past, current and emerging arts practices in each art form across a range of cultures and places.

The Australian Curriculum: The Arts comprises five subjects:
• Dance • Drama • Media Arts • Music • Visual Arts.

The arts have the capacity to engage, inspire and enrich all students, exciting the imagination and encouraging them to reach their creative and expressive potential. The five arts subjects in the Australian Curriculum provide opportunities for students to learn how to create, design, represent, communicate and share their imagined and conceptual ideas, emotions, observations and experiences.

Rich in tradition, the arts play a major role in the development and expression of cultures and communities, locally, nationally and globally. Students communicate ideas in current, traditional and emerging forms and use arts knowledge and understanding to make sense of their world. The Australian Curriculum: The Arts values, respects and explores the significant contributions of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples to Australia’s arts heritage and contemporary arts practices through their distinctive ways of representing and communicating knowledge, traditions and experience. In The Arts, students learn as artists and audience through the intellectual, emotional and sensory experiences of the arts. They acquire knowledge, skills and understanding specific to The Arts subjects and develop critical understanding that informs decision-making and aesthetic choices. Through The Arts, students learn to express their ideas, thoughts and opinions as they discover and interpret the world. They learn that designing, producing and resolving their work is as essential to learning in the arts as is creating a finished artwork. Students develop their arts knowledge and aesthetic understanding through a growing comprehension of the distinct and related languages, symbols, techniques, processes and skills of the arts subjects. Arts learning provides students with opportunities to engage with creative industries and arts professionals.

The arts entertain, challenge, provoke responses and enrich our knowledge of self, communities, world cultures and histories. The Arts contribute to the development of confident and creative individuals, nurturing and challenging active and informed citizens. Learning in The Arts is based on cognitive, affective and sensory/kinaesthetic response to arts practices as students revisit increasingly complex content, skills and processes with developing confidence and sophistication across their years of learning.

This rationale is extended and complemented by the specific rationale for each arts subject.

The Australian Curriculum: The Arts aims to develop students’:

• creativity, critical thinking, aesthetic knowledge and understanding about arts practices, through making and responding to artworks with increasing self-confidence;
• arts knowledge and skills to communicate ideas; they value and share their arts and life experiences by representing, expressing and communicating ideas, imagination and observations about their individual and collective worlds to others in meaningful ways;
• use of innovative arts practices with available and emerging technologies, to express and represent ideas, while displaying empathy for multiple viewpoints;
• understanding of Australia’s histories and traditions through the arts, engaging with the artworks and practices, both traditional and contemporary, of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples;
• understanding of local, regional and global cultures, and their arts histories and traditions, through engaging with the worlds of artists, artworks, audiences and arts professions.

These aims are extended and complemented by specific aims for each arts subject.

Years 9 and 10

In Dance, students:

• build on their awareness of the body and how it is used in particular dance styles;
• extend their understanding and use space, time, dynamics and relationships to expand their choreographic intentions;
• extend the combinations of fundamental movement skills to include dance style-specific movement skills;
• extend technical skills from the previous band, increasing their confidence, accuracy, clarity of movement and projection;
• draw on dances from a range of cultures, times and locations as they experience dance;
• explore the dance and influences of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and those of the Asia region;
• reflect on the development of traditional and contemporary styles of dance and how choreographers can be identified through the style of their choreography;
• learn about sustainability through the arts and sustainability of practices in the arts;
• explore meaning and interpretation, forms and elements, and social, cultural and historical contexts of dance as they make and respond to dance;
• evaluate dancers’ success in expressing the choreographers’ intentions and the use of expressive skills in dances they view and perform;
• understand that safe dance practices underlie all experiences in the study of dance;
• perform within their own body capabilities and work safely in groups.

Skills

Improvise to find new movement possibilities and explore personal style by combining elements of dance.

Manipulate combinations of the elements of dance and choreographic devices to communicate their choreographic intent.

Practise and refine technical skills to develop proficiency in genre- and style-specific techniques.

Structure dances using movement motifs, choreographic devices and form.

Perform dances using genre- and style-specific techniques and expressive skills to communicate a choreographer’s intent.

Evaluate their own choreography and performance, and that of others to inform and refine future work.

Analyse a range of dance from contemporary and past times to explore differing viewpoints and enrich their dance making, starting with dance from Australia and including dance of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, and consider dance in international contexts.

Achievement Standard

By the end of Year 10, students analyse the choreographer’s use of the elements of dance, choreographic devices, form and production elements to communicate choreographic intent in dances they make, perform and view. They evaluate the impact of dance from different cultures, places and times on Australian dance.

Students choreograph dances by manipulating and combining the elements of dance, choreographic devices, form and production elements to communicate their choreographic intent. They choreograph, rehearse and perform dances, demonstrating technical and expressive skills appropriate to the genre and style.

Years 9 and 10

In Drama, students:

• refine and extend their understanding and use of role, character, relationships and situation;
• extend the use of voice and movement to sustain belief in character;
• maintain focus and manipulate space and time, language, ideas and dramatic action;
• experiment with mood and atmosphere, use devices such as contrast, juxtaposition and dramatic symbol and modify production elements to suit different audiences;
• draw on drama from a range of cultures, times and locations as they experience drama;
• explore the drama and influences of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and those of the Asia region;
• learn that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people have converted oral records to other technologies;
• learn that over time there has been further development of different traditional and contemporary styles of drama and that dramatists can be identified through the style of their work, as they explore drama forms;
• explore meaning and interpretation, forms and elements, and social, cultural and historical influences of drama as they make and respond to drama;
• evaluate actors’ success in expressing the directors’ intentions and the use of expressive skills in drama they view and perform;
• maintain safety in drama and in interaction with other actors;
• build on their understanding from previous bands of the roles of artists and audiences as they engage with more diverse performances.

Skills

Improvise with the elements of drama and narrative structure to develop ideas, and explore subtext to shape devised and scripted drama.

Manipulate combinations of the elements of drama to develop and convey the physical and psychological aspects of roles and characters consistent with intentions in dramatic forms and performance styles.

Practise and refine the expressive capacity of voice and movement to communicate ideas and dramatic action in a range of forms, styles and performance spaces, including exploration of those developed by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander dramatists.

Structure drama to engage an audience through manipulation of dramatic action, forms and performance styles and by using design elements.

Perform devised and scripted drama making deliberate artistic choices and shaping design elements to unify dramatic meaning for an audience.

Evaluate how the elements of drama, forms and performance styles in devised and scripted drama convey meaning and aesthetic effect.

Analyse a range of drama from contemporary and past times to explore differing viewpoints and enrich their drama making, starting with drama from Australia and including drama of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, and consider drama in international contexts.

Achievement Standard

By the end of Year 10, students analyse the elements of drama, forms and performance styles and evaluate meaning and aesthetic effect in drama they devise, interpret, perform and view. They use their experiences of drama practices from different cultures, places and times to evaluate drama from different viewpoints.

Students develop and sustain different roles and characters for given circumstances and intentions. They perform devised and scripted drama in different forms, styles and performance spaces. They collaborate with others to plan, direct, produce, rehearse and refine performances. They select and use the elements of drama, narrative and structure in directing and acting to engage audiences. They refine performance and expressive skills in voice and movement to convey dramatic action.

Years 9 and 10

In Media Arts, students:

• refine and extend their understanding and use of structure, intent, character, settings, points of view, genre conventions and media conventions in their compositions;
• extend the use of time, space, sound, movement and lighting as they use technologies;
• analyse the way in which audiences make meaning and how audiences interact with and share media artworks;
• draw on media arts from a range of cultures, times and locations as they experience media arts;
• explore the media arts and influences of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and of the Asia region;
• learn that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people have converted oral records to other technologies;
• learn that over time there has been further development of different traditional and contemporary styles as they explore media forms;
• explore the representation of relationships that have developed between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and other cultures in Australia and how these may influence their own artistic intentions in making media artworks;
• explore meaning and interpretation, forms and elements, and social, cultural and historical influences of media arts as they make and respond to media artworks;
• consider the local, global, social and cultural contexts that shape purpose and processes in production of media artworks;
• evaluate the social and ethical implications of media arts;
• maintain safety in use of technologies and in interaction with others, including the use of images and works of others;
• maintain ethical practices and consider regulatory issues when using technology;
• build on their understanding from previous bands of the roles of artists and audiences as students engage with more diverse media artworks.

Skills

Experiment with ideas and stories that manipulate media conventions and genres to construct new and alternative points of view through images, sounds and text.

Manipulate media representations to identify and examine social and cultural values and beliefs, including those of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

Develop and refine media production skills to integrate and shape the technical and symbolic elements in images, sounds and text for a specific purpose, meaning and style.

Plan and design media artworks for a range of purposes that challenge the expectations of specific audiences by particular use of production processes.

Produce and distribute media artworks for a range of community and institutional contexts and consider social, ethical and regulatory issues.

Evaluate how technical and symbolic elements are manipulated in media artworks to create and challenge representations framed by media conventions, social beliefs and values for a range of audiences.

Analyse a range of media artworks from contemporary and past times to explore differing viewpoints and enrich their media arts making, starting with Australian media artworks, including media artworks of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, and international media artworks.

Achievement Standard

By the end of Year 10, students analyse how social and cultural values and alternative points of view are portrayed in media artworks they make, interact with and distribute. They evaluate how genre and media conventions and technical and symbolic elements are manipulated to make representations and meaning. They evaluate how social, institutional and ethical issues influence the making and use of media artworks.

Students produce representations that communicate alternative points of view in media artworks for different community and institutional contexts. They manipulate genre and media conventions and integrate and shape the technical and symbolic elements for specific purposes, meaning and style. They collaboratively apply design, production and distribution processes.

Years 9 and 10

In Music, students:

• continue to develop their aural skills as they build on their understanding and use of the elements of music;
• extend their understanding and use of more complex rhythms and diversity of pitch and incorporate dynamics and expression in different forms;
• extend their use of and identification of timbre to discriminate between different instruments and different voice types;
• build on their understanding of their role within an ensemble as they control tone and volume in a range of styles using instrumental and vocal techniques;
• extend technical and expressive skills in performance from the previous band;
• draw on music from a range of cultures, times and locations as they experience music;
• explore the music and influences of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and those of the Asia region;
• learn that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people have converted oral records to other technologies;
• learn that over time there has been further development of different traditional and contemporary styles as they explore music forms;
• reflect on the development of traditional and contemporary styles of music and how musicians can be identified through the style of their music;
• explore meaning and interpretation, forms and elements, and social, cultural and historical contexts of music as they make and respond to music;
• evaluate performers’ success in expressing the composers’ intentions and expressive skills in music they listen to and perform;
• maintain safety, correct posture and technique in using instruments and technologies;
• build on their understanding from previous bands of the roles of artists and audiences as they engage with more diverse music.

Skills

Improvise and arrange music, using aural recognition of texture, dynamics and expression to manipulate the elements of music to explore personal style in composition and performance.

Manipulate combinations of the elements of music in a range of styles, using technology and notation.

Practise and rehearse to refine a variety of performance repertoire with increasing technical and interpretative skill.

Plan and organise compositions with an understanding of style and convention, including drawing upon Australian music by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander artists.

Perform music applying techniques and expression to interpret the composer’s use of elements of music.

Evaluate a range of music and compositions to inform and refine their own compositions and performances.

Analyse a range of music from contemporary and past times to explore differing viewpoints and enrich their music making, starting with Australian music,including music of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, and consider music in international contexts.

Achievement Standard

By the end of Year 10, students analyse different scores and performances aurally and visually. They evaluate the use of elements of music and defining characteristics from different musical styles. They use their understanding of music making in different cultures, times and places to inform and shape their interpretations, performances and compositions.

Students interpret, rehearse and perform solo and ensemble repertoire in a range of forms and styles. They interpret and perform music with technical control, expression and stylistic understanding. They use aural skills to recognise elements of music and memorise aspects of music such as pitch and rhythm sequences. They use knowledge of the elements of music, style and notation to compose, document and share their music.

Years 9 and 10

In Visual Arts, students:

• build on their awareness of how and why artists, craftspeople and designers realise their ideas through different visual representations, practices, processes and viewpoints;
• refine their personal aesthetic through working and responding perceptively and conceptually as an artist, craftsperson, designer or audience;
• identify and explain, using appropriate visual language, how artists and audiences interpret artworks through explorations of different viewpoints;
• research and analyse the characteristics, qualities, properties and constraints of materials, technologies and processes across a range of forms, styles, practices and viewpoints;
• adapt, manipulate, deconstruct and reinvent techniques, styles and processes to make visual artworks that are cross-media or cross-form;
• draw on artworks from a range of cultures, times and locations as they experience visual arts;
• explore the influences of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and those of the Asia region;
• learn that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people have converted oral records to other technologies;
• reflect on the development of different traditional and contemporary styles and how artists can be identified through the style of their artworks as they explore different forms in visual arts;
• identify the social relationships that have developed between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people and other cultures in Australia, and explore how these are reflected in developments of forms and styles in visual arts;
• use historical and conceptual explanations to critically reflect on the contribution of visual arts practitioners as they make and respond to visual artworks;
• adapt ideas, representations and practices from selected artists and use them to inform their own personal aesthetic when producing a series of artworks that are conceptually linked, and present their series to an audience;
• extend their understanding of safe visual arts practices and choose to use sustainable materials, techniques and technologies;
• build on their experience from the previous band to develop their understanding of the roles of artists and audiences.

Skills

Conceptualise and develop representations of themes, concepts or subject matter to experiment with their developing personal style, reflecting on the styles of artists, including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander artists.

Manipulate materials, techniques, technologies and processes to develop and represent their own artistic intentions.

Develop and refine techniques and processes to represent ideas and subject matter.

Plan and design artworks that represent artistic intention.

Present ideas for displaying artworks and evaluate displays of artworks.

Evaluate how representations communicate artistic intentions in artworks they make and view to inform their future art making.

Analyse a range of visual artworks from contemporary and past times to explore differing viewpoints and enrich their visual art-making, starting with Australian artworks, including those of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, and consider international artworks.

Achievement Standard

By the end of Year 10, students evaluate how representations communicate artistic intentions in artworks they make and view. They evaluate artworks and displays from different cultures, times and places. They analyse connections between visual conventions, practices and viewpoints that represent their own and others’ ideas. They identify influences of other artists on their own artworks.

Students manipulate materials, techniques and processes to develop and refine techniques and processes to represent ideas and subject matter in their artworks.

The Australian Curriculum: Technologies describes two distinct but related subjects:

• Design and Technologies, in which students use design thinking and technologies to generate and produce designed solutions for authentic needs and opportunities;
• Digital Technologies, in which students use computational thinking and information systems to define, design and implement digital solutions.

Technologies enrich and impact on the lives of people and societies globally. Australia needs enterprising individuals who can make discerning decisions about the development and use of technologies and who can independently and collaboratively develop solutions to complex challenges and contribute to sustainable patterns of living. Technologies can play an important role in transforming, restoring and sustaining societies and natural, managed and constructed environments.

The Australian Curriculum: Technologies ensures that all students benefit from learning about and working with traditional, contemporary and emerging technologies that shape the world in which we live. By applying their knowledge and practical skills and processes when using technologies and other resources to create innovative solutions, independently and collaboratively, they develop knowledge, understanding and skills to respond creatively to current and future needs.

The practical nature of the Technologies learning area engages students in critical and creative thinking, including understanding interrelationships in systems when solving complex problems. A systematic approach to experimentation, problem-solving, prototyping and evaluation instils in students the value of planning and reviewing processes to realise ideas.

All young Australians should develop capacity for action and a critical appreciation of the processes through which technologies are developed and how technologies can contribute to societies. Students need opportunities to consider the use and impact of technological solutions on equity, ethics, and personal and social values. In creating solutions, as well as responding to the designed world, students consider desirable sustainable patterns of living, and contribute to preferred futures for themselves and others.

This rationale is extended and complemented by specific rationales for each Technologies subject.

The Australian Curriculum: Technologies aims to develop the knowledge, understanding and skills to ensure that, individually and collaboratively, students:

• investigate, design, plan, manage, create and evaluate solutions;
• are creative, innovative and enterprising when using traditional, contemporary and emerging technologies, and understand how technologies have developed over time;
• make informed and ethical decisions about the role, impact and use of technologies in the economy, environment and society for a sustainable future;
• engage confidently with and responsibly select and manipulate appropriate technologies − materials, data, systems, components, tools and equipment − when designing and creating solutions;
• critique, analyse and evaluate problems, needs or opportunities to identify and create solutions.

These aims are extended and complemented by specific aims for each Technologies subject.

Years 9 and 10

Learning in Design and Technologies builds on concepts, skills and processes developed in earlier years, and teachers will revisit, strengthen and extend these as needed.

By the end of Year 10 students will have had the opportunity to design and produce at least four designed solutions focused on one or more of the five technologies contexts content descriptions. There is one optional content description for each of the following: Engineering principles and systems, Food and fibre production, Food specialisations and Materials and technologies specialisations. There is an additional open content description to provide flexibility and choice. Students should have opportunities to experience creating designed solutions for products, services and environments.

In Year 9 and 10 students use design and technologies knowledge and understanding, processes and production skills and design thinking to produce designed solutions to identified needs or opportunities of relevance to individuals and regional and global communities. Students work independently and collaboratively. Problem-solving activities acknowledge the complexities of contemporary life and make connections to related specialised occupations and further study. Increasingly, study has a global perspective, with opportunities to understand the complex interdependencies involved in the development of technologies and enterprises. Students specifically focus on preferred futures, taking into account ethics; legal issues; social values; economic, environmental and social sustainability factors and using strategies such as life cycle thinking. Students use creativity, innovation and enterprise skills with increasing confidence, independence and collaboration.

Using a range of technologies including a variety of graphical representation techniques to communicate, students generate and represent original ideas and production plans in two and three-dimensional representations using a range of technical drawings including perspective, scale, orthogonal and production drawings with sectional and exploded views. They produce rendered, illustrated views for marketing and use graphic visualisation software to produce dynamic views of virtual products.

Students identify the steps involved in planning the production of designed solutions. They develop detailed project management plans incorporating elements such as sequenced time, cost and action plans to manage a range of design tasks safely. They apply management plans, changing direction when necessary, to successfully complete design tasks. Students identify and establish safety procedures that minimise risk and manage projects with safety and efficiency in mind, maintaining safety standards and management procedures to ensure success. They learn to transfer theoretical knowledge to practical activities across a range of projects.

Knowledge and Understanding

Critically analyse factors, including social, ethical and sustainability considerations, that impact on designed solutions for global preferred futures and the complex design and production processes involved.

Explain how products, services and environments evolve with consideration of preferred futures and the impact of emerging technologies on design decisions.

By the end of Year 10 students will have had the opportunity to design and produce designed solutions for one or more of the technologies contexts below.

Investigate and make judgments on how the characteristics and properties of materials are combined with force, motion and energy to create engineered solutions.

Investigate and make judgments on the ethical and sustainable production and marketing of food and fibre.

Investigate and make judgments on how the principles of food safety, preservation, preparation, presentation and sensory perceptions influence the creation of food solutions for healthy eating.

Investigate and make judgments on how the characteristics and properties of materials, systems, components, tools and equipment can be combined to create designed solutions.

Investigate and make judgments, within a range of technologies specialisations, on how technologies can be combined to create designed solutions.

Processes and Production Skills

Critique needs or opportunities to develop design briefs and investigate and select an increasingly sophisticated range of materials, systems, components, tools and equipment to develop design ideas.

Develop, modify and communicate design ideas by applying design thinking, creativity, innovation and enterprise skills of increasing sophistication.

Work flexibly to effectively and safely test, select, justify and use appropriate technologies and processes to make designed solutions.

Evaluate design ideas, processes and solutions against comprehensive criteria for success recognising the need for sustainability.

Develop project plans using digital technologies to plan and manage projects individually and collaboratively taking into consideration time, cost, risk and production processes.

Achievement Standard

By the end of Year 10, students explain how people working in design and technologies occupations consider factors that impact on design decisions and the technologies used to produce products, services and environments. They identify the changes necessary to designed solutions to realise preferred futures they have described. When producing designed solutions for identified needs or opportunities, students evaluate the features of technologies and their appropriateness for purpose for one or more of the technologies contexts.

Students create designed solutions for one or more of the technologies contexts based on a critical evaluation of needs or opportunities. They establish detailed criteria for success, including sustainability considerations, and use these to evaluate their ideas and designed solutions and processes. They create and connect design ideas and processes of increasing complexity and justify decisions. Students communicate and document projects, including marketing for a range of audiences. They independently and collaboratively apply sequenced production and management plans when producing designed solutions, making adjustments to plans when necessary. They select and use appropriate technologies skilfully and safely to produce high-quality designed solutions suitable for the intended purpose.

Years 9 and 10

Learning in Digital Technologies focuses on further developing understanding and skills in computational thinking such as precisely and accurately describing problems and the use of modular approaches to solutions. It also focuses on engaging students with specialised learning in preparation for vocational training or learning in the senior secondary years.

By the end of Year 10, students will have had opportunities to analyse problems and design, implement and evaluate a range of digital solutions, such as database-driven websites and artificial intelligence engines and simulations.

In Year 9 and 10, students consider how human interaction with networked systems introduces complexities surrounding access to, and the security and privacy of, data of various types. They interrogate security practices and techniques used to compress data, and learn about the importance of separating content, presentation and behavioural elements for data integrity and maintenance purposes.

Students explore how bias can impact the results and value of data collection methods and they use structured data to analyse, visualise, model and evaluate objects and events.

They learn how to develop multilevel abstractions, identify standard elements such as searching and sorting in algorithms, and explore the trade-offs between the simplicity of a model and the faithfulness of its representation.

When defining problems students consider the functional and non-functional requirements of a solution through interacting with clients and regularly reviewing processes. They consolidate their algorithmic design skills to incorporate testing and review, and further develop their understanding of the user experience to incorporate a wider variety of user needs. Students develop modular solutions to complex problems using an object-oriented programming language where appropriate, and evaluate their solutions and existing information systems based on a broad set of criteria including connections to existing policies and their enterprise potential. They consider the privacy and security implications of how data are used and controlled, and suggest how policies and practices can be improved to ensure the sustainability and safety of information systems.

Students progressively become more skilled at identifying the steps involved in planning solutions and developing detailed plans that are mindful of risks and sustainability requirements. When creating solutions, both individually and collaboratively, students comply with legal obligations, particularly with respect to the ownership of information, and when creating interactive solutions for sharing in online environments.

Knowledge and Understanding

Investigate the role of hardware and software in managing, controlling and securing the movement of and access to data in networked digital systems.

Analyse simple compression of data and how content data are separated from presentation.

Processes and Production Skills

Develop techniques for acquiring, storing and validating quantitative and qualitative data from a range of sources, considering privacy and security requirements.

Analyse and visualise data to create information and address complex problems, and model processes, entities and their relationships using structured data.

Define and decompose real-world problems precisely, taking into account functional and non-functional requirements and including interviewing stakeholders to identify needs.

Design the user experience of a digital system by evaluating alternative designs against criteria including functionality, accessibility, usability, and aesthetics.

Design algorithms represented diagrammatically and in structured English and validate algorithms and programs through tracing and test cases.

Implement modular programs, applying selected algorithms and data structures including using an object-oriented programming language.

Evaluate critically how student solutions and existing information systems and policies, take account of future risks and sustainability and provide opportunities for innovation and enterprise.

Create interactive solutions for sharing ideas and information online, taking into account safety, social contexts and legal responsibilities.

Plan and manage projects using an iterative and collaborative approach, identifying risks and considering safety and sustainability.

Achievement Standard

By the end of Year 10, students explain the control and management of networked digital systems and the security implications of the interaction between hardware, software and users. They explain simple data compression, and why content data are separated from presentation.

Students plan and manage digital projects using an iterative approach. They define and decompose complex problems in terms of functional and non-functional requirements. Students design and evaluate user experiences and algorithms. They design and implement modular programs, including an object-oriented program, using algorithms and data structures involving modular functions that reflect the relationships of real-world data and data entities. They take account of privacy and security requirements when selecting and validating data. Students test and predict results and implement digital solutions. They evaluate information systems and their solutions in terms of risk, sustainability and potential for innovation and enterprise. They share and collaborate online, establishing protocols for the use, transmission and maintenance of data and projects.

Years 9 and 10

The Year 9 and 10 curriculum supports students to refine and apply strategies for maintaining a positive outlook and evaluating behavioural expectations in different leisure, social, movement and online situations. Students learn to critically analyse and apply health and physical activity information to devise and implement personalised plans for maintaining healthy and active habits. They also experience different roles that contribute to successful participation in physical activity, and propose strategies to support the development of preventive health practices that build and optimise community health and wellbeing.

In Years 9 and 10, students learn to apply more specialised movement skills and complex movement strategies and concepts in different movement environments. They also explore movement concepts and strategies to evaluate and refine their own and others’ movement performances. Students analyse how participation in physical activity and sport influence an individual’s identities, and explore the role participation plays in shaping cultures. The curriculum also provides opportunities for students to refine and consolidate personal and social skills in demonstrating leadership, teamwork and collaboration in a range of physical activities.

Focus areas to be addressed in Years 9 and 10 include:

• alcohol and other drugs (AD);
• food and nutrition (FN);
• health benefits of physical activity (HBPA);
• mental health and wellbeing (MH);
• relationships and sexuality (RS);
• safety (S);
• challenge and adventure activities (CA);
• games and sports (GS);
• lifelong physical activities (LLPA);
• rhythmic and expressive movement activities (RE).

Being healthy, safe and active

Evaluate factors that shape identities and critically analyse how individuals impact the identities of others.

Examine the impact of changes and transitions on relationships.

Plan, rehearse and evaluate options (including CPR and first aid) for managing situations where their own or others’ health, safety and wellbeing may be at short or long term risk.

Propose, practise and evaluate responses in situations where external influences may impact on their ability to make healthy and safe choices.

Communicating and interacting for health and wellbeing

Investigate how empathy and ethical decision making contribute to respectful relationships.

Evaluate situations and propose appropriate emotional responses and then reflect on possible outcomes of different responses.

Critically analyse and apply health information from a range of sources to health decisions and situations.

Contributing to healthy and active communities

Plan, implement and critique strategies to enhance health, safety and wellbeing of their communities.

Plan and evaluate new and creative interventions that promote their own and others’ connection to community and natural and built environments.

Critique behaviours and contextual factors that influence health and wellbeing of diverse communities.

Moving our body

Provide and apply feedback to develop and refine specialised movement skills in a range of challenging movement situations.

Develop, implement and evaluate movement concepts and strategies for successful outcomes with and without equipment.

Understanding movement

Design, implement and evaluate personalised plans for improving or maintaining their own and others’ physical activity and fitness levels.

Analyse the impact of effort, space, time, objects and people when composing and performing movement sequences.

Examine the role physical activity, outdoor recreation and sport play in the lives of Australians and investigate how this has changed over time.

Learning through movement

Devise, implement and refine strategies demonstrating leadership and collaboration skills when working in groups or teams.

Transfer understanding from previous movement experiences to create solutions to movement challenges.

Reflect on how fair play and ethical behaviour can influence the outcomes of movement activities.

By the end of Year 10, students critically analyse contextual factors that influence identities, relationships, decisions and behaviours. They analyse the impact attitudes and beliefs about diversity have on community connection and wellbeing. They evaluate the outcomes of emotional responses to different situations. Students access, synthesise and apply health information from credible sources to propose and justify responses to health situations. Students propose and evaluate interventions to improve fitness and physical activity levels in their communities. They examine the role physical activity has played historically in defining cultures and cultural identities.

Students demonstrate leadership, fair play and cooperation across a range of movement and health contexts. They apply decision-making and problem-solving skills when taking action to enhance their own and others’ health, safety and wellbeing. They apply and transfer movement concepts and strategies to new and challenging movement situations. They apply criteria to make judgements about and refine their own and others’ specialised movement skills and movement performances. They work collaboratively to design and apply solutions to movement challenges.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages is designed to enable all students to engage in learning a language in addition to English. The design of the Australian Curriculum: Languages recognises the features that languages share as well as the distinctiveness of specific languages.

There are aspects of the curriculum that pertain to all languages. The key concepts of language, culture and learning, as described in the Shape of the Australian Curriculum: Languages, underpin the learning area. They also provide the basis for a common rationale and set of aims for all languages.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages includes language–specific curricula for world languages and a Framework for Aboriginal Languages and Torres Strait Islander Languages.

Language specificity

The curriculum content and achievement standards are different for each specific language because of inherent differences in the languages themselves.

Each language has its own distinctive structure, systems, conventions for use, related culture(s), place in the Australian and international communities, as well as its own history in Australian education.

Diversity of language learners

Understanding who learners are, as language learners and as young people, is the starting point for developing their language learning. An increasingly varied range of students now study languages in Australian classrooms. The changing pattern of migration to Australia is extending the range of languages students bring with them to school. Education systems seek to provide for this diversity of language background and for the fact that languages classrooms include students with varying degrees of experience of and proficiency in the language being learnt, as well as their particular affiliations with additional languages.

Learners come to learning languages with diverse linguistic, cultural and personal profiles, bringing distinctive biographies which include individual histories; biographies; previous experiences of and relationships with the target language and particular motivations, expectations, and aspirations.

As unique, social and cultural beings, students interpret the world and make sense of their experiences through their own social and cultural traditions, understanding and values.

Learners of languages in Australia comprise three major groups:

• second language learners
• background language learners
• first language learners.

Second language learners are those who are introduced to learning the target language at school as an additional, new language. The first language used before they start school and/or the language they use at home is not the language being learnt.

Background language learners are those who may use the language at home, not necessarily exclusively, and have varying degrees of knowledge of and proficiency in the language being learnt. These learners have a base for literacy development in the language.

First language learners are users of the language being learnt who have undertaken at least primary schooling in the target language. They have had their primary socialisation as well as initial literacy development in that language and use the target language at home. For Aboriginal languages and Torres Strait Islander languages, first language learners are learners whose primary socialisation is in the language being learnt and who may or may not have yet developed initial literacy.

Within each of these groups, there are differences in proficiency in the language being learnt. It is acknowledged that the span of language experiences of background learners is particularly wide, and learners in this group are likely to have quite diverse affiliations with the target language. Nevertheless, for pragmatic reasons, it is not feasible to identify further groupings.

A framework is being developed for Aboriginal languages and Torres Strait Islander languages that caters for different learner pathways that also take into account the state of the particular language involved.

Through learning languages, students acquire:

• communication skills in the language being learnt;
• an intercultural capability, and an understanding of the role of language and culture in communication;
• a capability for reflection on language use and language learning.

Language learning provides the opportunity for students to engage with the linguistic and cultural diversity of the world and its peoples, to reflect on their understanding of experience in various aspects of social life, and on their own participation and ways of being in the world.

Learning languages broadens students’ horizons in relation to the personal, social, cultural and employment opportunities that an increasingly interconnected and interdependent world presents. The interdependence of countries and communities means people in all spheres of life are required to negotiate experiences and meanings across languages and cultures. Despite its status as a world language, a capability in English only is no longer sufficient. A bilingual or plurilingual capability is the norm in most parts of the world.

Learning languages:

• extends the capability to communicate and extends literacy repertoires;
• strengthens understanding of the nature of language, of culture, and of the processes of communication;
• develops intercultural capability;
• develops understanding of and respect for diversity and difference, and an openness to different experiences and perspectives;
• develops understanding of how culture shapes worldviews and extends learners’ understanding of themselves, their own heritage, values, culture and identity;
• strengthens intellectual, analytical and reflective capabilities, and enhances creative and critical thinking.

Learning languages also contributes to strengthening the community’s social, economic and international development capabilities. Language capabilities represent linguistic and cultural resources through which the community can engage socially, culturally and economically, in domains which include business, trade, science, law, education, tourism, diplomacy, international relations, health and communications.

Learning Aboriginal languages and Torres Strait Islander languages meets the needs and rights of young people to learn their own languages and recognises their significance in the language ecology of Australia. For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students, learning their own languages is crucial to overall learning and achievements, to developing a sense of identity and recognition and understanding of language, culture, Country and Place. For all students, learning Aboriginal languages and Torres Strait Islander languages provides a distinctive means of understanding the country in which they live, including the relationship between land, the environment and people. The ongoing and necessary reclamation and revitalisation of these languages also contribute to reconciliation.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages aims to develop the knowledge, understanding and skills to ensure students:

• communicate in the target language;
• understand language, culture, and learning and their relationship, and thereby develop an intercultural capability in communication;
• understand themselves as communicators.

These three aims are interrelated and provide the basis for the two organising strands: Communicating and Understanding. The three aims are common to all languages.

Language and culture

The interrelationship of language, culture and learning provides the foundation for the Australian Curriculum: Languages.

In the languages learning area the focus is on both language and culture, as students learn to communicate meaningfully across linguistic and cultural systems, and different contexts. This process involves reflection and analysis, as students move between the new language being learnt and their own existing language(s). It is a reciprocal and dynamic process which develops language use within intercultural dimensions of learning experiences. It is not a ‘one plus one’ relationship between two languages and cultures, where each language and culture stay separate and self-contained. Comparison and referencing between (at least) two languages and cultures build understanding of how languages ‘work’, how they relate to each other and how language and culture shape and reflect experience; that is, the experience of language using and language learning. The experience of being in two worlds at once involves noticing, questioning and developing awareness of how language and culture shape identity.

Learner background and time-on-task are two major variables that influence language learning and they provide the basis for the structure of the Australian Curriculum: Languages. These variables are addressed through the specification of content and the description of achievement standards according to pathways and learning sequences respectively.

Pathways

In the Australian Curriculum: Languages, pathways for second language learners, background language learners and first language learners have been developed as appropriate to cater for the dominant group(s) of students learning each specific language within the current Australian context. For the majority of languages, one curriculum pathway has been developed for Years F–10, catering for the dominant cohort of learners for that language in the current Australian context. For Chinese, pathways have been developed for three learner groups: first language learners, background language learners and second language learners.

The Framework for Aboriginal languages and Torres Strait Islander Languages includes three learner pathways:

• first language learner pathway;
• revival language learner pathway;
• second language learner pathway.

Sequences of learning

The design of the Australian Curriculum: Languages takes account of different entry points into language learning across Foundation – Year 10, which reflects current practice in languages.

For the second language learner pathway and the background language learner pathway, there are two learning sequences:

• Foundation–Year 10 sequence;
• Years 7–10 (Year 7 Entry) sequence.

For the first language learner pathway, there is one learning sequence:

• Years 7–10 (Year 7 Entry) sequence.

Content and achievement standards are described initially in a three-year band for Foundation–Year 2 followed by two-year bands of learning: Years 3–4; Years 5–6, Years 7–8 and Years 9–10.

The Framework for Aboriginal Languages and Torres Strait Islander Languages is written in the bands Foundation – Year 2, Years 3–6 and Years 7–10. In the absence of pedagogical evidence across the country for all these languages, the broader band distinctions provide maximum local flexibility in curriculum development.

Content structure

The content of the Australian Curriculum: Languages is organised through two interrelated strands which realise the three aims. The two strands are:

• Communicating: using language for communicative purposes in interpreting, creating and exchanging meaning;
• Understanding: analysing language and culture as a resource for interpreting and creating meaning.

The strands reflect three important aspects of language learning:

1) communication.

2) analysis of aspects of language and culture.

3) reflection that involves:

1. reflection on the experience of communicating;

2. reflection on comparative dimensions of the languages available in students’ repertoires (for example, the first language in relation to second language and self in relation to others).

Strands and sub-strands

A set of sub-strands has been identified within each strand, which reflects dimensions of language use and the related content to be taught and learned. The strands and sub-strands do not operate in isolation but are integrated in relation to language use for different purposes in different contexts. The relative contribution of each sub-strand differs for described languages, pathways and bands of learning. The sub-strands are further differentiated according to a set of ‘threads’ that support the internal organisation of content in each sub-strand. These ‘threads’ are designed to capture (1) range and variety in the scope of learning and (2) a means for expressing the progression of content across the learning sequences.

Communicating:

Using language for communicative purposes in interpreting, creating and exchanging meaning:

1.1 Socialising
Interacting orally and in writing to exchange, ideas, opinions, experiences, thoughts and feelings; and participating in planning, negotiating, deciding and taking action.

1.2 Informing
Obtaining, processing, interpreting and conveying information through a range of oral, written and multimodal texts; developing and applying knowledge.

1.3 Creating
Engaging with imaginative experience by participating in, responding to and creating a range of texts, such as stories, songs, drama and music.

1.4 Translating
Moving between languages and cultures orally and in writing, recognising different interpretations and explaining these to others.

1.5 Reflecting
Participating in intercultural exchange, questioning reactions and assumptions; and considering how interaction shapes communication and identity.

Understanding:
Analysing and understanding language and culture as resources for interpreting and shaping meaning in intercultural exchange:

2.1 Systems of language
Understanding language as a system, including sound, writing, grammatical and textual conventions.

2.2 Language variation and change
Understanding how languages vary in use (register, style, standard and non-standard varieties) and change over time and place.

2.3 The role of language and culture
Analysing and understanding the role of language and culture in the exchange of meaning.

ACARA is committed to the development of a high-quality curriculum that promotes excellence and equity in education for all Australian students.

All students are entitled to rigorous, relevant and engaging learning programs drawn from the Australian Curriculum: Languages. Teachers take account of the range of their students’ current levels of learning, strengths, goals and interests and make adjustments where necessary. The three-dimensional design of the Australian Curriculum, comprising learning areas, general capabilities and cross-curriculum priorities, provides teachers with flexibility to cater for the diverse needs of students across Australia and to personalise their learning.

More detailed advice for schools and teachers on using the Australian Curriculum to meet diverse learning needs is available under Student Diversity on the Australian Curriculum website.

Students with disability

The Disability Discrimination Act 1992 and the Disability Standards for Education 2005 require education and training service providers to support the rights of students with disability to access the curriculum on the same basis as students without disability.

Many students with disability are able to achieve educational standards commensurate with their peers, as long as the necessary adjustments are made to the way in which they are taught and to the means through which they demonstrate their learning.

In some cases curriculum adjustments are necessary to provide equitable opportunities for students to access age-equivalent content in the Australian Curriculum: Languages. Teachers can draw from content at different levels along the Foundation to Year 10 sequence. Teachers can also use the extended general capabilities learning continua in Literacy, Numeracy and Personal and social capability to adjust the focus of learning according to individual student need.

English as an additional language or dialect

Languages play a crucial role in the educational experience of students and in the curriculum as a whole. Given the diversity of students in Australian education, it is important to recognise that a range of languages is used either as part of the formal curriculum or as part of learners’ socialisation within and outside the school.

Learners bring their first language or languages as the one(s) they use for their initial socialisation in their family or community. For the majority, this is English. For many, it can be a range of different languages. Learners also encounter the language or languages of instruction at school. For most in Australia, this is English. For many students in Australia, the language of instruction is not the same as their first language. These students may learn through English as an additional language/dialect (EALD) programs.

In contemporary understandings of language acquisition, development and learning all the languages learners experience in their socialisation and education form part of learners’ distinctive linguistic and cultural repertoires. These are variously developed by both the experience of schooling and broader social community experience. These repertoires are an integral part of learners’ identities and what they bring to the learning of additional languages as part of the languages learning area within the school curriculum.

While the curriculum for languages primarily addresses the learning of languages, this learning cannot be separated from the development of learners’ more general communicative repertoires. It is through such a relational and holistic approach to languages education that learners develop their capabilities in knowing and using multiple languages. Learners extend their communicative and conceptual development, learning and identity formation.

In various kinds of bilingual programs, students are afforded an opportunity to learn through the medium of English and another language (learners’ first or additional language). These programs are of particular value in ensuring learners continue to develop at least two languages that are of value to them. They are of value to both their conceptual development and learning and to their identity formation.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities recognise the importance of literacy to their children. They support literacy education programs that are founded on establishing literacy in their children’s first language. These are the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages their communities use. Literacy in English is regarded as concomitant on first establishing students’ literacy in their first language. Although most bilingual programs in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages are designed to help students’ transition into learning in English, their fundamental value is in the development of bilingual literacy. Strengthening the bilingual literacy of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students can significantly contribute to improving their overall academic achievement and success.

A national English as an Additional Language or Dialect: Teacher Resource has been developed to support teachers in making the Australian Curriculum: Foundation – Year 10 in each learning area accessible to EALD students.

Gifted and talented students

Teachers can use the Australian Curriculum: Languages flexibly to meet the individual learning needs of gifted and talented students.

Teachers can enrich learning by providing students with opportunities to work with learning area content in more depth or breadth; emphasising specific aspects of the general capabilities learning continua (for example, the higher order cognitive skills of the Critical and creative thinking capability); and/or focusing on cross-curriculum priorities. Teachers can also accelerate student learning by drawing on content from later levels in the Australian Curriculum: Languages and/or from local state and territory teaching and learning materials.

In the Australian Curriculum, general capabilities encompass knowledge, skills, behaviours, and dispositions that, together with curriculum content in each learning area and the cross-curriculum priorities, will enable students to live and work successfully in the 21st century.

There are seven general capabilities:

• literacy;
• numeracy;
• information and communication technology (ICT) capability;
• critical and creative thinking;
• personal and social capability;
• ethical understanding;
• intercultural understanding.

In the Australian Curriculum: Languages, general capabilities are identified wherever they are developed or applied in content descriptions.

They are also identified where they offer opportunities to add depth and richness to student learning through content elaborations. Icons indicate where general capabilities have been identified in languages content. Teachers may find further opportunities to incorporate explicit teaching of the capabilities, depending on their choice of activities.

Literacy

Learning languages develops overall literacy. It is in this sense ‘value added’, strengthening literacy-related capabilities that are transferable across languages, both the language being learnt and all other languages that are part of the learner’s repertoire. Languages learning also strengthens literacy-related capabilities across domains of use, such as the academic domain and the domains of home language use, and across learning areas.

Literacy development involves conscious attention and focused learning. It involves skills and knowledge that need guidance, time and support to develop. These skills include the:

• ability to decode and encode from sound to written systems;
• the learning of grammatical, orthographic and textual conventions;
• development of semantic, pragmatic and interpretative, critical and reflective literacy skills.

Literacy development for second language learners is cognitively demanding. It involves these same elements but often without the powerful support of a surrounding oral culture and context. The strangeness of the additional language requires scaffolding. In the language classroom, analysis is prioritised alongside experience. Explicit, explanatory and exploratory talk around language and literacy is a core element. Learners are supported to develop their own meta–awareness, to be able to think and talk about how the language works and about how they learn to use it. Similarly, for first language learners, literacy development that extends to additional domains and contexts of use requires comparative analysis that extends literacy development in their first language and English.

Numeracy

Learning languages affords opportunities for learners to use the target language to develop skills in numeracy, to understand, analyse, categorise, critically respond to and use mathematics in different contexts. This includes processes such as using and understanding patterns, order and relationships to reinforce concepts such as number, time or space in their own and in others’ cultural and linguistic systems.

Information and communication technology (ICT) capability

Learning languages is enhanced through the use of multimodal resources, digital environments and technologies in the target language. Accessing live target language environments and texts via digital media contributes to the development of information technology capabilities as well as linguistic and cultural knowledge. Accessing different real-time contexts extends the boundaries of the classroom.

Critical and creative thinking

In learning a language, students interact with people and ideas from diverse backgrounds and perspectives, which enhances critical thinking, reflection and encourages creative, divergent and imaginative thinking. By learning to notice, connect, compare and analyse aspects of the target language, students develop critical, analytic and problem-solving skills.

Personal and social capability

Interacting effectively in an additional language and with people of diverse language backgrounds involves negotiating and interpreting meaning in a range of social and cultural situations. This involves understanding and empathising, which are important elements of social and intercultural competence. Being open-minded and recognising that people view and experience the world in different ways, and learning to interact in a collaborative and respectful manner are key elements of personal and social competence.

Ethical understanding

When learning another language, students are taught explicitly to acknowledge and value difference in their interactions with others and to develop respect for diverse ways of perceiving and acting in the world. Opportunities are provided to monitor and to adjust their own ethical points of view. In learning Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages, students should consider appropriate ethical behaviour in terms of engaging with the owners and custodians of the languages. Similar consideration is required when interpreting and translating or when collecting and analysing primary research data.

Intercultural understanding

The development of intercultural understanding is a central aim of learning languages, as it is integral to communicating in the context of diversity, the development of global citizenship and lifelong learning. Students bring to their learning various preconceptions, assumptions and orientations shaped by their existing language(s) culture(s) to their learning that can be challenged by the new language experience. Learning to move between the existing and new languages and cultures is integral to language learning and is the key to the development of students’ intercultural capability. By learning a new language, or learning to use an existing language in new domains and contexts, students are able to notice, compare and reflect on things previously taken for granted; to explore their own linguistic, social and cultural practices as well as those associated with the target language. They begin to see the complexity, variability and sometimes the contradictions involved in using language.

Learning a new language does not require forsaking the first language. It is an enriching and cumulative process, which broadens the learners’ communicative repertoire, providing additional resources for interpreting and making meaning. Learners come to realise that interactions between different people through the use of different languages also involves interactions between the different kinds of knowledge, understanding and values that are articulated through language(s) and culture(s). They realise that successful intercultural communication is not only determined by what they do or say, but also by what members of the other language and culture understand from what they say or do.

The Australian Curriculum gives special attention to three cross-curriculum priorities:

• Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures;
• Asia and Australia’s engagement with Asia;
• sustainability.

The cross-curriculum priorities are embedded in the curriculum and will have a strong but varying presence depending on their relevance to each of the learning areas.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities are strong, rich and diverse. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander identity is central to this priority. It is intrinsically linked to living and learning in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, deep knowledge of traditions and holistic world view.

A conceptual framework based on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples’ unique sense of identity has been developed as a tool for embedding Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures within the Australian curriculum. This sense of identity is approached through the interconnected concepts of Country/Place, people and culture. Embracing these elements enhances all areas of the curriculum.

The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander priority provides opportunities for all learners to deepen their knowledge of Australia by engaging with the world’s oldest continuous living cultures. This knowledge and understanding will enrich their ability to participate positively in the evolving history of Australia.

A direct way of learning about and engaging with diverse Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities is to learn an Aboriginal language and/or a Torres Strait Islander language. There is an inseparable connection between Aboriginal languages and Torres Strait Islander languages and land/sea, Country/Place, the environment, fauna and flora. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures are an integral part of the learning of Aboriginal languages and Torres Strait Islander languages.

In learning all languages, there is a scope for making interlinguistic and intercultural comparisons across languages, including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages, to develop understanding of concepts related to the linguistic landscape of Australia and to the concepts of language and culture in general.

Asia and Australia’s engagement with Asia

In the Australian Curriculum: Languages, the cross-curriculum priority of Asia and Australia’s engagement with Asia enables the development of rich and engaging content and contexts for developing students’ capabilities to engage with the languages and cultures of Asia and of people of Asian heritage within Australia.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages enables students to learn the languages of the Asian region, learning to communicate and interact in interculturally appropriate ways, exploring concepts, experiences and perspectives from within and across Asian cultures.

In the languages learning area, students develop an appreciation for the place of Australia within the Asian region, including the interconnections of languages and cultures, peoples and communities, histories and economies. Students learn how Australia is situated within the Asian region, how our national linguistic and cultural identity is continuously evolving both locally, regionally and within an international context.

Sustainability

In the Australian Curriculum: Languages, the priority of sustainability provides a context for developing students’ capability to communicate ideas, understanding and perspectives on issues and concepts related to the environment.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages contributes to students’ capabilities to investigate, analyse and communicate concepts and understandings related to sustainability in broad contexts, and to advocate, generate and evaluate actions for sustainable futures. Within each language, students engage with a range of texts focused on concepts related to sustainability. These include:

• environment;
• conservation;
• social and political change;
• linguistic and cultural ecologies;
• change, both within the target language and culture, and across languages and cultures in general.

In this way, students develop knowledge, skills and understanding about sustainability within particular cultural contexts. This is crucial in the context of national and international concerns about, for example, climate change, food shortages and alternative ways of caring for land and agriculture. Through developing a capability to interact with others, negotiating meaning and mutual understanding respectfully and reflecting on communication, students learn to live and work in ways that are both productive and sustainable.

Learning Aboriginal languages and Torres Strait Islander languages contributes to the global effort to exchange knowledge among people with varied practices in caring for the land. It also contributes to the reconciliation process in Australia and goals for language revival.

Accent

A manner of pronunciation of a language which marks speakers as belonging to identifiable categories such as geographical or ethnic origin, social class or generation.

Accent marks

Marks placed on a letter to indicate pronunciation, stress or intonation, or to indicate a different meaning or different grammatical usage for the word within which they appear. For example, résumé, piñata, ou/où.

Accuracy

Production of structurally correct forms of the target language.

Adjective

A word that modifies or describes a noun or pronoun. For example, astonishing in an astonishing discovery.

Adverb

A word class that may modify or qualify a verb, an adjective or another adverb. For example, beautifully in she sings beautifully; really in he is really interesting; very and slowly in she walks very slowly.

Adverbial

A word or group of words that functions as an adverb.

Aesthetic

Relates to a sense of beauty or appreciation of artistic expression.

Alliteration

A recurrence of the same consonant sounds at the beginning of words in close succession (for example, ripe, red raspberry)

Audience

Intended readers, listeners or viewers.

Authentic (texts/materials)

Texts or materials produced for ‘real-life’ purposes and contexts as opposed to being created specifically for learning tasks or language practice.

Author

A composer or originator of a work (for example, a novel, film, website, speech, essay, autobiography).

Bilingualism

An ability to use two or more languages.

Biography

A detailed account of an individual’s life; a text genre that lends itself to different modes of expression and construction. In the context of intercultural language learning, the concept of biography can be considered in relation to identity, to the formation of identity over time, and to the understanding that language is involved in the shaping and expressing of identity.

Character components

Individual elements of a written character which have a separate linguistic identity.

Characters

(i) graphic symbols used in writing in some languages
(ii) assumed roles in dramatic performance

Clause

A grammatical unit that contains a subject and a predicate (verb) and expresses the complete proposition.

CLIL

Content and language integrated learning. An approach to learning content through an additional language.

Code-switching

A use of more than one language in a single utterance. For example, Papa, can you buy me a panini, please? A common feature of bilingual and multilingual language use.

Cognates

Similar or identical words which have shared origins. For example, father (English), Vater (German) and pater (Latin) have a shared origin. Gratitude (English) and gratitud (Spanish) are both derived from gratitudo (Latin). English ship and skiff share the same Germanic origin.

Cohesion

Grammatical or lexical relationships that bind different parts of a text together and give it unity. Cohesion is achieved through various devices such as connectives, ellipses and word associations. These associations include synonyms, antonyms (for example, study/laze about, ugly/beautiful), repetition (for example, work, work, work – that’s all we do!) and collocation (for example, friend and pal in, My friend did me a big favour last week. She’s been a real pal.)

Collocation

Words that typically occur in close association and in particular sequence. For example, salt and pepper rather than pepper and salt and ladies and gentlemen rather than gentlemen and ladies.

Communication

A mutual and reciprocal exchange of meaning.

Communicative competence

An acquired capability to understand and interact in context using the target language (TL). Defined by the use of appropriate phonological, lexical, grammatical, sociolinguistic and intercultural elements.

Complex sentence

A sentence with more than one clause. In the following examples, the subordinate clauses are indicated by square brackets: I took my umbrella [because it was raining]; The man [who came to dinner] is my brother.

Complexity

A degree to which language use is complex as opposed to simple. Elements of language complexity include:

Composing

A process of producing written, spoken, graphic, visual or multi-modal texts. It includes:
It also includes applying knowledge and control of language forms, features and structures required to complete the task.

Compound sentence

A sentence with two or more main clauses of equal grammatical status, usually marked by a coordinating conjunction such as or, and, but. In the following examples, the main clauses are indicated by square brackets: [Alice came home this morning] [but she didn’t stay long]. [Kim is an actor], [Pat is a teacher], [and Sam is an architect].

Comprehension strategies

Strategies and processes used by listeners, readers and viewers of text to understand and make meaning. These include:
making hypotheses based on illustrations or text layout:

• drawing on language knowledge and experience (for example, gender forms);
• listening for intonation or expression cues;
• interpreting grapho-phonic, semantic and syntactic cues.

Comprehension/comprehending

An active process of making/constructing/deciphering meaning of language input through listening, reading, viewing, touching (as in braille) and combinations of these modes. It involves different elements: decoding, working out meaning, evaluating and imagining. The process draws upon the learner’s existing knowledge and understanding, text–processing strategies and capabilities; for example, inferencing or applying knowledge of text types and social and cultural resources.

Concrete language

A language used to refer to the perceptible and material world and to particular persons, places and objects. For example, school, girl; as opposed to abstract language, used to refer to ideas or concepts removed from the material world such as peace, kindness, beauty.

Conjunction

A part of speech that signals relationships between people, things, events, ideas. For example, Sophie and her mother might come and visit, or they might stay at home. The conjunction and links the two participants, while or links alternative options.

Content

A subject matter used as a vehicle for language learning.

Context

An environment and circumstances in which a text is created or interpreted. Context can include the general social, historical and cultural conditions in which a text exists or the specific features of its immediate environment, such as participants, roles, relationships and setting. The term is also used to refer to the wording surrounding an unfamiliar word that a reader or listener uses to understand its meaning.

Convention

An accepted language or communicative practice that has developed and become established over time. For example, use of punctuation or directionality.

Create

Develop and/or produce spoken, written or multimodal texts in print or digital forms.

Cues

Sources of information used to facilitate comprehension of language, that may be visual, grammatical, gestural or contextual.

Culture

In earlier models of language teaching and learning, culture was represented as a combination of literary and historical resources, and visible, functional aspects of a community group’s way of life such as food, celebrations and folklore. While these elements of culture are parts of cultural experience and organisation, current orientations to language teaching and learning employ a less static model of culture. Culture is understood as a framework in which things come to be seen as having meaning. It involves the lens through which:

• people see, think, interpret the world and experience;
• make assumptions about self and others;
• understand and represent individual and community identity.

Culture involves understandings about ‘norms’ and expectations, which shape perspectives and attitudes. It can be defined as social practices, patterns of behaviour, and organisational processes and perspectives associated with the values, beliefs and understandings shared by members of a community or cultural group. Language, culture and identity are understood to be closely interrelated and involved in the shaping and expression of each other. The intercultural orientation to language teaching and learning is informed by this understanding.

De-centre

A capacity to step outside familiar frames of reference, to consider alternative views, experiences and perspectives and to look critically and objectively at one’s own linguistic and cultural behaviour.

Decode

A process of working out the meaning of a text. Decoding strategies involve readers/listeners/viewers drawing on contextual, lexical, alphabetic, grammatical and phonic knowledge to decipher meaning. Readers who decode effectively combine these forms of knowledge fluently and automatically, using meaning to recognise when they make an error and to self-correct.

Dialect

A variant of a language that is characteristic of a region or social group.

Diaspora

A scattered population with a common origin in a smaller geographical area.

Digital media

Various platforms via which people communicate electronically.

Digital texts

Audio, visual or multimodal texts produced through digital or electronic technology. They may be interactive and include animations or hyperlinks. Examples of digital texts include DVDs, websites and e-literature.

Digraph

Two letters that represent a single sound:

• vowel digraphs have two vowels (for example, ‘oo’, ‘ea’);
• consonant digraphs have two consonants (for example, ‘sh’, ‘th’).

Dipthongs

Two vowel sounds pronounced in a single syllable with the individual vowel sounds distinguished. (For example, hour)

Directionality

A direction in which writing/script occurs, for example, from left to right, right to left.

Encode

A process of changing spoken language into symbols of written/digital language.

Enunciation

A clear and distinct pronunciation of language.

Face

A ‘socio-dynamic’ term which concerns self-delineated worth that comes from knowing one’s status. Relates to concepts such as reputation, self-respect, honour and prestige. A key element of social relations in Chinese, Japanese and many other cultures.

Filler

A sound or word used in spoken conversation to signal a pause, hesitation or unfinished contribution. For example, I went to the station…er… then I caught a train… Frequent use of fillers characterises early stages of second language (L2) development, but proficient speakers and first language (L1) speakers also use them as an opportunity to reflect or recast.

Fluency

An ability to produce spoken or written language with appropriate phrasing, rhythm and pace. It involves the smooth flow of language, lack of hesitation or undue pausing and characterises the largely accurate use and automation of the target language.

Form-focused learning activities

Activities designed to rehearse, practise, control and demonstrate particular language structures, forms or features. For example, drills, rehearsed role plays/dialogues, games and songs, set sequences of language patterns.

Formulaic language

Words or expressions which are commonly used in fixed patterns and learned as such without grammatical analysis. For example, Once upon a time (story-starter); G’day, how are you going?(greeting in Australian English).

Framing

A way in which elements of text are arranged to create a specific interpretation of the whole.

Genre

A category used to classify text types and language use; characterised by distinguishing features such as subject matter, form, function and intended audience. Examples of genres typically used in early language learning include greetings, classroom instructions and apologies. More advanced language proficiency includes the ability to use genres such as narrative or persuasive text, creative performance and debates.

The language we use and the description of language as a system. In describing language, attention is paid to both structure (form) and meaning (function) at the level of the word, the sentence and the text.

Grapho-phonic knowledge

Knowledge of how letters in printed language relate to the sounds of the language and of how symbols (letters, characters) represent spoken language.

Homophone

A word identical in pronunciation with another but different in meaning (for example, bare and bear, air and heir).

Honorific

A grammatical form, typically a word or affix, that has at least part of its meaning the relative social status of the speaker in relation to the addressee, other participant or context. Parts of speech which signify respect, politeness and emphasize social distance or status.

Hybrid texts

Composite texts resulting from a mixing of elements from different sources or genres. For example, email, which combines the immediacy of talk and the expectation of a reply with the permanence of print.

Hypermedia

A multimedia system in which related items and forms of information, such as data, texts, graphics, video and audio, are linked and can be presented together by a hypertext program.

Hypertext

A text which contains links to other texts.

Identity

A person’s conception and expression of individuality or group affiliation, self-concept and self-representation. Identity is closely connected to both culture and language. Thinking and talking about the self is influenced by the cultural frames, which are offered by different languages and cultural systems. Identity is not fixed. Second language learners’ experience with different linguistic and cultural systems introduces them to alternative ways of considering the nature and the possibilities associated with identity.

Ideograph

A graphic character that indicates meanings without reference to the sounds used to pronounce the word.

Idiomatic expressions

A group of (more or less) fixed words having a meaning not deducible from the individual words. Idioms are typically informal expressions used by particular social groups and need to be explained as one unit (for example, I am over the moon, on thin ice, a fish out of water, fed up to the back teeth).

Indicative hours

An indication for the purposes of curriculum development of the assumption about learning time on task.

Infinitive

A base form of a verb.

Input

Direct contact with and experience of the target language; the stimulus required for language acquisition and learning. Input can take multiple forms and be received through different modes.

Intensifiers

Words that are usually used with adjectives to emphasise their meaning and are expressed by means of an adverb (for example, very interesting, awfully boring)

Intercultural capability

An ability to understand and to engage in the relationship between language, culture and people from diverse backgrounds and experience. This involves understanding the dynamic and interdependent nature of both language and culture, that communicating and interacting in different languages involves interacting with values, beliefs and experiences as well as with words and grammars. An intercultural capability involves being open to different perspectives, being flexible and curious, responsive and reflective; being able to decentre, to look objectively at one’s own cultural ways of thinking and behaving, and at how these affect attitudes to others, shade assumptions and shape behaviours. Characteristics of an intercultural capability include cognitive and communicative flexibility and an orientation and ability to act in ways that are inclusive and ethical in relation to diversity and difference.

Intercultural language teaching and learning

An orientation to language teaching and learning that informs current curriculum design; framed by the understanding that language and culture are dynamic, interconnected systems of meaning-making; that proficiency in an additional language involves cultural and intercultural as well as linguistic capabilities. The focus is on developing communicative proficiency and on moving between language–culture systems. It includes the reflexive and reciprocal dimension of attention to learners’ own language(s) and cultural frame(s).

Interpret

In the context of L2 learning, interpret refers to two distinct processes:

• the act of translation from one language to another;
• the process of understanding and explaining; the ability to conceive significance and construct meaning, and to explain to self or others.

Intonation

A key component of communication, involving patterns of pitch and melody of spoken language that can be used like punctuation; for example, to express surprise or suggest a question, to shade, accentuate or diminish emphasis or meaning, and to regulate turn-taking in conversations.

Language

A human cognitive and communicative capability which makes it possible to communicate, to create and comprehend meaning, to build and sustain relationships, to represent and shape knowledge, and to imagine, analyse, express and evaluate.

Language is described and employed:

• as code – comprising systems, rules, a fixed body of knowledge; for example, grammar and vocabulary, sound and writing systems
  as social practice – used to do things, create relationships, interact with others, represent the world and the self; to organise social systems and practices in dynamic, variable, and changing ways;
• as cultural and intercultural practice – means by which communities construct and express their experience, values, beliefs and aspirations;
• as cognitive process – means by which ideas are shaped, knowledge is constructed, and analysis and reflection are structured.

Language comprehension

A process of interpreting meaning from spoken, written, tactile and multimodal representations of language.

Language features

Features of language that support meaning; for example, sentence structure, noun group/phrase, vocabulary, punctuation, figurative language. Choices in language features and text structures together define a type of text and shape its meaning. These choices vary according to the purpose of a text, its subject matter, audience and mode or medium of production.

Language functions

Varied ways in which language is used to achieve particular purposes; for example, to persuade, to entertain, to apologise, to argue and/or to compliment.

Language patterns

Identifiable repeated or corresponding elements in a text. These include patterns of repetition or similarity, such as the repetition of imperative verb forms at the beginning of each step in a recipe, or the repetition of a chorus after each verse in a song. Patterns may alternate, as in the call and response pattern of some games, or the to-and-fro of a dialogue. Patterns may also contrast, as in opposing viewpoints in a discussion or contrasting patterns of imagery in a poem.

Language specificity

Distinguishing features of a particular language. These include lexico-grammatical and textual features, writing system(s), phonetic systems, and cultural elements which influence language use such as:

• politeness or kinship protocols;
• the nature of language communities which use the language;
• the historical and/or current relationship of a language with education in Australia;
• features of its ‘learnability’ in terms of teaching and learning in the context of Australian schooling.

Language systems

Elements that organise how a language works, including the systems of signs and rules (phonological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic) that underpin language use. These systems have to be internalised for effective communication and comprehension.

Learning trajectory

A conceptualised developmental sequence of learning, including learning goals, learning activities, knowledge and skills to be developed at progressive levels.

Level statements

Descriptions in broad terms of the developmental characteristics of students and their language learning at particular phases along the Foundation–Year 12 continuum.

Lexical cohesion

A use of word associations to create links in texts. Links can be made through the use of repetition of words, synonyms, antonyms and words that are related, such as by class and subclass.

Literacy resources

Individual resources and capabilities which learners bring to their learning experience; these include text knowledge, grammatical and vocabulary knowledge, knowledge of phonetic and writing systems. They also include critical, reflective and intercultural capabilities that support new literacy experience in a different language.

Macro skills

Four major language skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing.

Media texts

Spoken, print, graphic, or electronic communications created for a public audience. They often involve numerous people in their construction and are usually shaped by the technology used in their production. Media texts studied in different languages can be found in newspapers, magazines and on television, film, radio, computer software and the internet.

Mediate

To move between different linguistic and cultural systems, referencing own first language(s)/culture(s) while learning to use and to understand those of the target language. This movement involves:

• noticing, interpreting, responding sensitively and flexibly;
• conveying culturally-shaped ideas, values, experience to others;
• exploring how ideas and experiences are represented and conveyed in different languages and cultures;
• considering similarities, overlaps, collisions and adjustments;
• developing the capacity to communicate and represent different perspectives and interpretations.

Mediating operates in two distinctive ways:

• in practices such as interpreting and translating, with attention to what can happen in these processes in terms of ‘losing’ or ‘gaining’ meaning;
• as the element of the learning experience, which involves noticing, responding, comparing and explaining differences in expression and perspective.

Medium

Resources used in the production and transmission of texts, including tools and materials used (for example, digital text and the computer, writing and the pen or the keyboard).

Metalanguage

A vocabulary used to discuss language conventions and use ( for example, language used to talk about grammatical terms such as sentence, clause, conjunction; or about the social and cultural nature of language, such as face, reciprocating, register.)

Mnemonic

Memorising information by use of an aid such as a pattern, rhyme, acronym, visual image.

Modal verb

A verb attached to another verb to express a degree of probability (for example, I might come home) or a degree of obligation (for example, You must give it to me,You are to leave now).

Mode

Various processes of communication: listening, speaking, reading/viewing, signing and writing/creating. Modes are also used to refer to the semiotic (meaning making) resources associated with these communicative processes, such as sound, print, image and gesture.

Morpheme

The smallest meaningful unit in the grammar of a language. Morphemes are not necessarily the same as either words or syllables. The word cat has one morpheme while the word cats has two morphemes: cat for the animal and s to indicate that there is more than one. Similarly, like has one morpheme while dislike has two: like to describe appreciation and dis to indicate the opposite. The process of identifying morphemes assists comprehension, vocabulary building and spelling.

Morphology

Principles of word formation and inflection, especially with respect to constituent morphemes.

Multimodal text

A text which involves two or more communication modes; for example, the combining of print, image and spoken text in film or computer presentations.

Narrative

A story of events or experiences, real or imagined.

Narrative devices

Techniques used to help in the narrating of a story or reported event. For example, imagery, metaphor, allusion.

Neologism

A new word is created, for example, Smartphone, modem, AIDS or an existing word is used in a new way, for example, deadly.

Noun

A part of speech that includes all words denoting physical objects such as man, woman, boy, girl, car,window. These are concrete nouns. Abstract nouns express intangibles, such as democracy, courage,success, idea.

Oracy

An ability to express oneself in and to understand spoken language; it includes oral and aural proficiency.

Orthography

Writing words with correct letters or characters according to common usage.

Paralanguage

Additional elements of spoken communication which are integrated with vocal (voice) and verbal (words) elements, and contribute significantly to communication and meaning-making. For example, voice quality, volume and pacing, facial expressions, gestures, posture and body movement.

Paralinguistics

A study of paralanguage elements of expression.

Pedagogy

A combination of conceptual knowledge, practical skills and reflective capabilities which constitute the ‘art and science’ of teaching.

Performance

A use of the language in real situations, putting language knowledge into practice; it involves accuracy, fluency and complexity.

Phoneme

The smallest meaningful unit in the sound system of a language. For example, the word is has two phonemes: /i/ and /s/; ship has three phonemes: /sh/, /i/, /p/. A phoneme usually has several manifestations dependent on varying phonological contexts. For example, the p in pin and spin differs slightly in pronunciation but is regarded as being the same phoneme; that is, as having the same functional meaning within each word.

Phonics

A relationship between letters or characters and the sounds they make when pronounced. L2 learning involves developing phonic awareness and proficiency.

Phonological awareness

Understanding that every spoken word is composed of small units of sound, identifying relationships between letters and sounds when listening, reading and spelling. It includes understandings about words, rhyme and syllables.

Pragmatics

A study of how context affects communication; for example, in relation to the status of participants, the situation in which the communication is happening, or the intention of the speaker.

Prediction

An informed presumption about something that might happen. Predicting at text level can include working out what a text might contain by looking at the cover, or working out what might happen next in a narrative. Predicting at sentence level includes identifying what word is likely to come next in a sentence.

Prefix

A meaningful element (morpheme) added before the main part of a word to change its meaning. For example, unhappy.

Preposition

A part of speech that precede a noun, noun phrase phrase or pronoun, thereby describing relationships in a sentence in respect to:

• space/direction (below, in, on, to, under ‒ for example, she sat on the table);
• time (after, before, since ‒ for example, Í will go to the beach after lunch);
• those that do not relate to space or time (of, besides, except, despite ‒ for example, he ate all the beans except the purple ones).

Prepositions usually combine with a noun group or phrase to form a prepositional phrase. For example, in the office, besides these two articles.

Productive language use

One of the two aspects of communication through language (see receptive language) involving the ability to express, articulate and produce utterances or texts in the target language.

Pronoun

A part of speech that refers to nouns, or substituting for them, within and across sentences. For example, Ahmad chose a chocolate cake. He ate it that evening (where he and it are personal pronouns; and that is a demonstrative pronoun).

Pronunciation

A manner in which a syllable is uttered.

Prosody

Patterns of rhythm, tempo, stress, pitch and intonation used in language; for example, in poetry or public speaking.

Proxemics

A use of space, posture and touch as elements of non-verbal communication.

Purposeful learning

Learning which results from authentic language experiences that involve real purpose and achievable outcomes.

Question

A commonly employed prompt to elicit language use. A key element of scaffolding to support learners’ use of language and to encourage further contributions. Different types of questions provide different prompts:

• closed questions are questions for which there are predictable answers. For example, What time is it? These are typically used as prompts for short answers, as a framework for testing comprehension or reviewing facts, and for routinized interactions. They are frequently used to scaffold early language development;
• open questions are questions with unknown and unpredictable answers that invite and support more elaborated and extended contributions from learners. For example, How do you feel about that?What do you think might happen next? They are used as stimulus to discussion, reflection and investigation.

Questions are an important element of intercultural language teaching and learning. The quality of questions determines the quality and substance of the learning experience. Effective questions relating to the nature of language, culture and identity and the processes involved in language learning and intercultural experience guide the processes of investigating, interpreting and reflecting which support new understanding and knowledge development.

Read

Process visual or tactile symbols (for example, braille), words or actions in order to derive and/or construct meaning. Reading includes elements of decoding (of sounds and symbols), interpreting, critically analysing and reflecting upon meaning in a wide range of written, visual, print and non-print texts.

Receptive language

One of the two components of communication through language (see productive language): the ‘receiving’ aspect of language input, the gathering of information and making of meaning via listening, reading, viewing processes.

Reciprocating

An integrating element of intercultural communication that involves movement and relationship, interpreting and creating meaning, and understanding the process of doing so. It involves not only the exchange of words but also an exchange of understanding between the people involved. It comes into play when the learner ‘self’ encounters and interacts with the ‘other’ (the target language speaker, the target language itself as text or experience); when the existing language code and cultural frame encounters a different code and frame. This experience impacts on the learner’s perspective and sense of identity and on their usual ways of communicating. Reciprocating involves conscious attention to the process: attention to the self (intraculturality) and to the likely impact of the self on the other person involved (interculturality). Things previously taken for granted are noticed in reference to new or different ways. Key elements of reciprocating include conscious attention, comparison, reflection and analysis:

• recognition that both partners in an exchange are involved in the ‘effort of meaning’;
• willingness to work out what the other person means, the cultural and social context they are speaking from and the perspectives, which frame what they are saying;
• making necessary adjustments to own and each other’s input, orientation and stance that will help the exchange to be successful.

Register

A variety of language used for a particular purpose or in a particular situation, the variation being defined by use as well as user. For example, informal register or academic register.

Romanisation

A transcription from a differently scripted language, such as Chinese or Japanese, into the Latin alphabet.

Root of a word

A word/word element that cannot be reduced to a smaller unit and from which other words are formed. For example, plant in replanting.

Scaffolding

Support provided to assist the learning process or to complete a learning task. Scaffolded language support involves using the target language at a level slightly beyond learners’ current level of performance, and involves incremental increasing and decreasing of assistance. Task support provides assistance to perform just beyond what learners can currently do unassisted, to progress to being able to do it independently. Scaffolding includes modelling and structuring input in ways that provide additional cues or interactive questioning to activate existing knowledge, probe existing conceptions or cue noticing and reflecting.

Scanning

A text processing strategy adopted to search for specific words, ideas or information in a text without reading every word. For example, looking for a word in the dictionary or a name in a phone directory. Scanning involves moving the eyes quickly down the text looking for specific words and phrases to gain a quick overall impression/to get the gist.

Script

A writing system in which characters or symbols represent components of language (letters, syllables, words).

Semantic knowledge

Knowledge gained at a meaning rather than a decoding level. This involves understanding the relationship between signifiers (words, phrases, symbols, signs) and the meanings they represent. Semantic information is supported through reference to prior knowledge, cultural connotations and contextual considerations.

Skimming

A text processing strategy aimed at gaining information quickly without focusing on every word.

Speak

Convey meaning and communicate with purpose. Some students participate in speaking activities using communication systems and assistive technologies to communicate wants, and needs, and to comment about the world

Stereotype

A widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing

Stress

An emphasis in pronunciation that is placed on a particular syllable of a word; for example, she will conduct the orchestra; her conduct is exemplary.

Suffix

A meaningful element added after the root of a word to change its meaning (for example, to show its tense : –ed in passed. Common suffixes in English include –ing; –ed; ness; –less; –able).

Synchronous

Occurring or existing at the same time.

Syntax

An ordering of sentence elements such as words, group/phrases and clauses. In some education settings, the terms syntax and grammar are used interchangeably.

Talk

Convey meaning and communicate with purpose. Some students participate in speaking activities using communication systems and assistive technologies to communicate wants, and needs, and to comment about the world

Task

An integrated experience and use of language, set in a context, accomplishing a purpose, focused on meaning. A task provides an organising structure and context for meaning-focused language learning. Unlike form-focused language activities and exercises, task-based learning involves the achievement of a goal or authentic outcome. Learners draw from existing language resources and seek out unfamiliar resources as needed to complete the task. Scaffolding is provided by the teacher via the task cycle, which includes form-focused teaching. Examples of tasks: researching an issue, sharing ideas and then categorising and presenting results; planning and having a picnic; designing and publishing an online newsletter.

Task-based language learning (TBLL)

An orientation to language teaching and learning, which focuses on the use of the language in meaningful and ‘life-like’ tasks and activities. The completion of the task is not an end in itself, as tasks are part of the overall learning and using of the language, providing a context and purpose for developing language competence and a means of assessing and evaluating learning outcomes. Learners work independently and/or collaboratively, draw on existing language resources, generate solutions to communicative problems, seek out additional or new language and other resources needed to complete the task. Focused language work, such as grammar knowledge, vocabulary building, social and cultural competence, is integrated with task preparation and completion processes. Tasks provide opportunities to integrate the four modes of language use, to develop fluency, complexity and problem-solving capacity, as well as including work on accuracy and focus on form. A task has limits as a one-off learning event, but is used as a meaningful component of learners’ overall learning progression.

Text

An identified stretch of language, used as a means for communication or the focus of learning and investigation. Text forms and conventions have developed to support communication with a variety of audiences for a range of purposes. Texts can be written, spoken or multimodal and in print or digital/online forms. Multimodal texts combine language with other systems for communication, such as print text, visual images, soundtrack and spoken word, as in film or computer presentation media.

Text processing strategies

Strategies learners use to decode and understand text. These involve drawing on contextual, semantic, grammatical and phonic knowledge in systematic ways to work out what a text says. They include predicting, recognising words and working out unknown words, monitoring comprehension, identifying and correcting errors, reading on and re-reading.

Text structure

Ways in which information is organised in different types of texts (for example, chapter headings, subheadings, tables of contents, indexes and glossaries, overviews, introductory and concluding paragraphs, sequencing, topic sentences, taxonomies, cause and effect). Choices in text structures and language features together define a text type and shape its meaning. Different languages/cultures structure texts differently in many instances.

Text types (genres)

Categories of text, classified according to the particular purposes they are designed to achieve, which influence the features the texts employ. For example, texts may be imaginative, informative or persuasive; or can belong to more than one category. Text types vary significantly in terms of structure and language features across different languages and cultural contexts. For example, a business letter in French will be more elaborated than a similar text in English; a request or an offer of hospitality will be differently expressed in Japanese or German.

Textual features/conventions

Structural components and elements that combine to construct meaning and achieve purpose, and are recognisable as characterising particular text types (see language features).

Tone

A use of pitch and contour in spoken language to nuance words and, in some languages, to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaning. In Chinese, for example, the tones are distinguished by their pitch range (register), duration and contour (shape). All Chinese syllables have a set tone, which distinguishes it and its meaning from another syllable. However, in certain environments tones can change or be modified, while in rapid spoken Chinese a great many unstressed syllables carry no tone at all.

Translation

A process of translating words/text from one language into another, recognising that the process involves movement of meanings and attention to cultural context as well as the transposition of individual words.

Transliteration

Writing a letter or word using the closest corresponding letter or word from a different language or alphabet.

Verb

A part of speech which expresses existence, action, state or occurrence. For example, they watch football; she is exhausted; the day finally came.

auxiliary verb – a verb that combines with another verb in a verb phrase to form tense, mood, voice or condition. For example, they will go, I did eat lunch, she might fail the exam.

Word borrowing

A practice of incorporating words from one language into another. For example, the use of Italian words such as pianissimo, cannelloni in English and the use of English ICT terms in many languages. The increasing frequency of word-borrowing between languages reflects intercultural contact, contemporary cultural shifts and practices in a globalised world, issues of ease of communication and efficiency and technological specialisation.

Years 7 to 10

The nature of the learner, the pathway and particular language

Languages studied in the Second Language Learner Pathway (L2) are typically languages used in spoken form as the language of everyday communication by whole communities across all generations.

The second language learner pathway has been written on the assumption that learning will occur off-Country involving students who are typically not from the language community and have little or no experience of the language and culture. They are introduced to learning the language at school as an additional, new language.

The language chosen for curriculum development should have a sizeable set of resources in a variety of media, such as local documentaries, bilingual narrative and descriptive texts, and educational materials in print and digital form. Learning is enriched and authenticated by interaction with visiting Elders and community speakers, and where possible visits to Country/Place. Information and communications technologies provide additional resources to support a range of language and culture experiences.

The curriculum content and achievement standards in the Second Language Learner Pathway are generalised in order to cater for the range of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander languages that may be learnt as a second language. The content descriptions, content elaborations and achievement standards for the Second Language Learner pathway will need to be adapted for use with the particular language being taught and will need to be modified if the program occurs on-Country or if the learners are from the language community.

At this level, students bring a range of language learning strategies to their learning. They are increasingly aware of the world beyond their own and are engaging with issues of youth, society and environment. They are increasingly independent and capable of analysis and reflection. They are considering their future pathways and choices, including how the language could be part of these.

Language learning and use

Learners interact using the target language in classroom routines and communicative tasks. They give presentations and participate in conversations, with some preparation and support, such as cue cards. They use the language more fluently, with a greater degree of self-correction and revision. They acquire skills in analysing and translating increasingly complex texts.

Learners are extending the range and quality of their writing through increased vocabulary and grammar knowledge, and by drafting and editing their own work and that of their peers. They use models to create a range of texts, including descriptions, recounts and reflections.

They are increasingly aware of connections between language and culture, noticing, for example, different language use according to kin relationships. They are learning to reflect on their own language and culture, and how identity impacts on intercultural experiences.

Contexts of interaction

Learning occurs largely through interaction with peers and the teaching team. Students may have some access to visiting Elders and community speakers, and may use technology to communicate with peers in the target language region, such as through a sister-school partnership. Some students may have opportunities to visit the target language region themselves or to view touring performances and art displays.

Texts and resources

Learners engage with a range of visual, spoken, written and digital texts, such as photographs, maps, bush calendars, seasonal charts, posters, songs, raps, dances, stories, paintings and visual design, video clips, and films.

Level of support

Learners are increasingly aware of and responsible for their own learning. They continue to access and use resources such as word lists, modelled texts and dictionaries. Teacher feedback continues to support their receptive and productive language use.

Learners require explicit instruction in the grammatical system of the target language, supported by comparisons with English and other known languages. They also require opportunities to discuss, practise and use their knowledge. They monitor their learning progress, for example by keeping records of their learning, such as journals, folios or blogs, and use these resources to reflect on their language learning and intercultural experiences.

The role of languages

The target language is used for classroom interaction, language learning activities and experiences, and reflection on learning. English is used to support analysis, comparison and reflection; it is also the medium for expressing personal views at a level beyond learners’ range in the target language, such as justifying a position on a social issue or exploring and comparing linguistic and cultural practices and learning experiences.

Socialising

Engage with peers, the teaching team and visiting Elders/community speakers to share interests, experiences and aspirations, to exchange information about teenage life and to express opinions and feelings
[Key concepts: experience, aspiration; Key processes: recounting, exchanging, connecting]

Engage in activities that involve collaboration, planning, organising and negotiating to take action
[Key concepts: event, experience, collaboration; Key processes: planning, organising, negotiating]

Interact in class activities that involve making requests and suggestions, seeking clarification, negotiating changes and expressing opinions
[Key concepts: opinion, discussion, respect; Key processes: requesting, negotiating, expressing, comparing, deciding, explaining]

Informing

Identify, analyse and summarise factual information obtained from a range of sources on a variety of topics and issues related to the region of the target language
[Key concepts: Indigenous knowledge, social and environmental issues, lifestyles, community initiatives and projects, community life; Key processes: summarising, synthesising, referencing]

Convey information about events, experiences or topics of shared interest, using different modes of presentation to suit different audiences and contexts
[Key concepts: audience, Country/Place, community life; Key processes: describing, explaining, creating, annotating]

Creating

Interpret and respond to a range of real and imaginative texts by sharing personal views, comparing themes, describing and explaining aspects of artistic expression and how these relate to land, people, plants, animals and social and ecological relationships
[Key concepts: representation, imagination; Key processes: interpreting, explaining, describing, discussing; Key text types: songs, raps, dances, traditional and contemporary stories, paintings and visual design, video clips, films]

Create a range of spoken, written and multimodal texts to entertain others, involving real or imagined contexts and characters
[Key concepts: imagination, journey; Key processes: creating, collaborating, performing, composing; Key] text types: raps, songs, performances, story, cartoons, advertisements, digital texts, video clips, skits, paintings and visual designs]

Translating

Translate and interpret a range of texts from the target language to English and vice versa, comparing their versions and considering how to explain elements that involve cultural knowledge or understanding
[Key concepts: equivalence, representation, meaning, interpretation, idiom; Key processes: comparing, explaining, interpreting]

Create bilingual texts in collaboration with others for the wider community
[Key concept: interpretation, bilingualism; Key processes: designing, explaining, classifying, glossing, annotating, composing]

Identity

Consider and discuss their own and each other’s experiences and ways of expressing identity, reflecting on how the target language links the local, regional and national identity of its speakers with the land
[Key concepts: identity, perspective, biography; Key processes: sharing, comparing, considering, reflecting, analysing]

Reflecting

Participate in intercultural interactions and consider own reactions when engaging with target language speakers and resources, and how these may reflect own language(s) and culture(s)
[Key concepts: intercultural experience, perspective, insight, self-reflection, ways of knowing and being, reconciliation, discrimination; Key processes: comparing, analysing, explaining, reflecting, choosing]

Systems of language

Produce sounds, stress, intonation patterns of the target language, using a developing phonemic awareness linked to the writing system
[Key concepts; metalanguage, patterns, phonetic articulation, syllable; Key processes: identifying, reading, investigating]

Expand vocabulary and understand and use a range of grammatical structures in the target language, including inflectional and derivational processes
[Key concepts: system, grammatical case, affixation, voice, transitivity, particles, Key processes: explaining, constructing, compounding]

Investigate spoken, written and visual modes of communication and analyse the form and structures of different types of texts, including their use, function and relationship to social processes
[Key concepts: text structure, relationship; Key processes: analysing, investigating, linking, sequencing]

Investigate how connections between Law, story, ceremony, people and Country/Place are demonstrated and evident in community behaviour
[Key concepts: interconnectedness, human relationships, ownership, rights, responsibilities; Key processes: describing, explaining, investigating, exploring]

Language variation and change

Analyse variations in language use that reflect different social and cultural contexts, purposes and relationships
[Key concepts: respect, silence, kinship; Key processes: examining, explaining, analysing]

Understand that languages and cultures change continuously due to contact with one another and in response to new needs and ideas, popular culture, media and new technologies
[Key concepts: contact, change; Key processes: exploring, observing, reflecting]

Language awareness

Investigate and compare the ecologies of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages with Indigenous languages in other countries, and consider issues such as languages policy, language rights, language loss, advocacy, reform and multilingualism
[Key concepts: environment, boundaries, policy, revival; Key processes: researching, investigating, exploring, considering]

Understand and apply cultural norms, skills and protocols associated with learning, using and researching Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages
[Key concepts: ownership, ethical behaviour; Key processes: acknowledging, investigating, applying]

Role of language and culture

Reflect on how ways of using language are shaped by communities’ ways of thinking, behaving and viewing the world, and the role of language in passing on knowledge
[Key concepts: Indigenous knowledge, value transmission; Key processes: reflecting, exploring, analysing, comparing]

Role of language building

Investigate programs, initiatives and techniques that keep Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages strong
[Key concepts: language maintenance, development, building; Key processes: discussing, exploring, investigating, evaluating, language building, language engineering]

The achievement standards for the Framework for Aboriginal Languages and Torres Strait Islander Languages Second Language Learner Pathway are generalised in order to cater for the range of languages that may be learnt as an L2 in the school context. The achievement standards will need to be adapted for use for specific Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages.

By the end of Year 10, students use the target language to initiate, sustain and extend interactions and to express feelings and opinions. They share interests, experiences and aspirations and exchange information about teenage life. They use spontaneous language to participate in activities that involve taking action, collaborating, planning, organising and negotiating. They use culturally appropriate norms, skills and protocols when engaging with and learning from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and communities. When interacting in the classroom, they make requests, make suggestions and seek clarification. They locate, analyse and summarise factual information from a range of sources on topics and issues related to the target language region. They demonstrate understanding of the target language region, community, culture, way of life and History by presenting information on social and environmental issues, past and present community initiatives, projects and lifestyles. Students listen to, view and share personal responses to a range of texts such as stories, songs, visual and creative arts, films and procedural texts. They demonstrate understanding by identifying and explaining main ideas, key themes, sequences of events, and by comparing the role and representation of animals, people and landscapes. They link and sequence ideas and use expressive language, gestures, artistic and iconographic elements and conventions to create spoken, written and multimodal texts that involve real or imagined contexts and characters. They apply culturally appropriate and ethical behaviour to translate and interpret a range of texts from the target language to English and vice versa, and explain culture-specific concepts, practices and expressions. They create bilingual texts to inform the wider community about aspects of the target language region and culture. Students share experiences and ways of expressing identity, and they reflect on how the target language links the local, regional and national identity of its speakers with the land. They describe how they feel and behave when interacting with target language speakers and resources, and they reflect on how their reactions may reflect their own languages, cultures and perspectives.

Students know the sounds, stress, intonation patterns, writing systems and grammatical elements of the target language and apply this knowledge to construct extended spoken, written and multimodal texts. They use metalanguage to explain sound, writing and grammatical systems, including inflectional and derivational processes. They analyse the form and structure of a range of spoken, written and visual texts and explain their function, form and relationship to social processes, such as declaring identity, acknowledging ancestors and traditional belief systems, and passing on knowledge and information. Students demonstrate their understanding of kinship as a system by explaining its importance in maintaining and regulating social relationships in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities and links with Country/Place. They explain how and why language use is adjusted to suit different social and cultural contexts, purposes and relationships. They explain the dynamic nature of language and cultures, and identify factors that influence change, such as contact with other languages or response to new ideas and technologies. Students make comparisons between the ecologies of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages and indigenous languages in other countries, in areas such as language policy and rights, language loss, advocacy and reform, and language revival. They identify the role of language in passing on knowledge, and explain how communities’ worldviews and ways of thinking and behaving shape how language is used. They identify factors that serve to maintain and strengthen language use, such as intergenerational collaboration and transmission, programs and initiatives, and explain challenges associated with such practices and initiatives.

Years 9 and 10

The nature of the learners

At this level, students bring to their learning existing knowledge of Arabic language and culture and a range of strategies. They are increasingly aware of the world beyond their own and are engaging with youth-related and social and sustainability issues. They require continued guidance and mentoring but work increasingly independently to analyse, reflect on and monitor their language learning and intercultural experiences. They are considering future pathways and options, including the possible role of Arabic in these.

Arabic language learning and use

Learners are immersed in Arabic language, initiating and engaging in discussions and debates on topics of interest, and responding to enquiries. They reflect on the cultural and linguistic appropriateness of their language use in interactions and make necessary adjustments. They engage in an increasing range of interactions with others, seeking and giving advice لأنك تحب الرياضة؛ أنصحك بالسباحة لأنها مفيدة جدا, discussing future plans and aspirations يزداد الفقر في المجتمع ويجب على الجميع أن يحاربه , and justifying their ideas and opinions أنا أحترم رأيك كثيراَ؛ لا أتفق معك إطلاقاَ. They access and evaluate information about places, events, people, experiences and cultures from diverse sources, and convey perspectives and views on topical issues such as friends, family and relationships, social issues, youth culture, community matters and the natural and built environments, making connections with their own ideas and experiences. Learners produce a range of texts, such as informative, narrative, descriptive, procedural or persuasive texts, for a variety of contexts, audiences and purposes. They use their imagination to create and present texts, such as stories, plays, poems and speeches, and to express ideas, attitudes and values through different characters, events, settings and techniques. They develop translating and interpreting techniques and intercultural awareness in order to mediate between languages and cultures. Through their engagement with diverse texts and resources, students explore how cultural practices, concepts, values and beliefs are embedded in texts and how language choices shape and reflect perspectives and meaning.

Contexts of interaction

Learners interact with peers, the teacher and other Arabic speakers both locally and globally through a variety of means and modes of communication, including digital, online, collaborative performances and group discussions. The context of interaction extends beyond the classroom and involves investigating and reporting on issues in the local community and transacting with local Arabic speakers to negotiate services. These experiences provide learners with a sense of connectedness and purpose as Arabic and English speakers.

Texts and resources

Learners use diverse resources such as Arabic newspapers, magazines, documentaries, films, stories, songs, television programs, entertainment performances and web pages as references to assist them with discussions and research projects on Arabic language and culture. They explore a variety of text types, such as poems, articles, formal letters, interviews and speeches, and engage with a range of informative, historical or literary perspectives, views and arguments. Learners use a range of dictionaries and translation methods to support comprehension, build vocabulary and elaborate on ideas.

Features of Arabic language use

Learners apply appropriate pronunciation, rhythm, stress and tone and a variety of language features and complex sentence structures to enhance their spoken and written communication. They apply complex grammatical structures, such as indirect object pronouns and passive voice, to express their ideas objectively in texts such as articles and speeches, for example, لا تهتم لقد دُفعت فاتورة الطعام . They expand on their views and opinions by using persuasive language, such as the subjunctive and imperative moods (لا تنسوا؛ شاهدوا الفيلم الاسطوري, and use cohesive devices to link and sequence ideas and information, for example, في البداية أود أن أحدثكم عن يوم النظافة. They analyse and explain how and why language use varies according to cultural contexts, relationships and purposes, and develop the language of reflection in Arabic.

Level of support

Support at this level of learning includes rich and varied stimulus materials, continued scaffolding and modelling of language functions and communicative tasks, and explicit instruction and explanation of the grammatical system, with opportunities for learners to discuss, clarify, practise and apply their knowledge. Critical and constructive teacher feedback combines with peer support and self-review to monitor and evaluate learning outcomes, for example, through portfolios, peer review or e-journalling.

The role of English

Arabic is predominantly used as the medium for classroom interaction and content delivery. English is used only when necessary to allow for further reflection on and discussion or explanation of more demanding concepts, particularly when making connections between language and culture. Learners explore how language influences cultural experiences and ways of thinking and of viewing the world. They examine their own personal and cultural identity and reflect on the nature of intercultural exchanges in which they are involved. They question the assumptions that Arabic and English speakers bring to interactions, and discuss ways to increase mutual understanding. They view their bilingualism and biculturalism as an asset for themselves and for Australia.

The place of the Arabic culture and language in Australia and in the world

Arabic is spoken by approximately 280 million people in 22 countries over two continents. It is the official language of the Arab world, which includes countries of the Middle East, North Africa and the Gulf region, and is one of the official languages of the United Nations. The Arabic-speaking world has a long history, and the Arabic language has evolved and flourished over time, as evidenced by the richness of its literature. Arabic is comprised of a number of dialects that reflect the cultural diversity of Arabic-speaking countries, regions and communities.

Since the end of the nineteenth century, large communities of Arabic speakers have migrated to countries such as the United States, Europe and Australia. More than 370,000 Australians are of Arab descent, living predominantly in Sydney and Melbourne. Australia has strong relationships with countries in the Middle East, North Africa, the Gulf and the wider Arabic-speaking world through family ties, trade and education.

Arabic-speaking communities in Australia comprise diverse groups, differing in ancestral origins, religious backgrounds and histories. They hold a heritage that shares common linguistic and cultural traditions, and these are the ties that bind. Arabic language and culture represent an important part of the linguistic and cultural diversity of Australia. The Arabic-speaking community has made and continues to make a significant contribution to the development and enrichment of Australian society, in areas such as commerce, agriculture, industry, health, education, journalism, hospitality, tourism and international relations.

The place of the Arabic language in Australian education

The study of Arabic provides background students with the opportunity to connect with their family heritage and to communicate with speakers of Arabic in Australia and around the world. Following the early settlement of Arabic speakers in Australia, the teaching of Arabic was established for children of Arabic-speaking migrants in after-hours school settings. Since the 1980s, Arabic has been taught in primary and secondary schools and tertiary institutions across Australia as well as in after-hours schools run by community organisations. This reflected the growing Arabic-speaking community in Australia, as well as government policies of the time supporting multiculturalism. The demand for Arabic language education in Australia has increased due to the geopolitical importance of the Arabic-speaking world and greater awareness of business opportunities.

The nature of Arabic language learning

Arabic is a Semitic language, and shares linguistic and phonological similarities with other Semitic languages such as Syriac, Aramaic and Hebrew. Classical Arabic and its successor, Modern Standard Arabic, have been and continue to be the language of religious texts as well as the basis for a rich heritage of classical poetry and literary prose. Today, speakers of Arabic come from a variety of social, cultural and religious backgrounds. Their views, cultures and beliefs are manifested in the language they use formally and informally in every aspect of their private lives and public affairs. Language is an inseparable part of their identity and the way they view themselves and the world around them.

The Arabic language has two forms: Modern Standard Arabic ( اللغة العربية الفصحى ) and colloquial Arabic. Modern Standard Arabic is the official language taught worldwide and used in formal situations, such as at school and university and in mosques, churches and official media. Colloquial Arabic is used in everyday situations, such as at home and in the marketplace, the street, restaurants, cafés, and popular and social media. Modern Standard Arabic is common to all countries of the Arabic-speaking world, while colloquial Arabic varies according to geographical location. For example, two individuals from Iraq and Morocco speaking in dialects would not easily understand each other unless they injected elements of Modern Standard Arabic into the conversation.

Arabic is a scripted language and is written from right to left. There are 28 letters, which are all consonants with short and long vowels. These vowels are represented in the forms of letters and marks called diacritic symbols which identify how words and letters are pronounced. Arabic is a highly inflectional language, with words formed according to a root system. Various vowels, prefixes and suffixes are used with root letters to create the desired inflection of meaning.

The diversity of learners of Arabic

The Australian Curriculum: Languages – Arabic is pitched to background language learners, the dominant cohort of learners in the Australian context.

The background language learner pathway has been developed for students who have exposure to Arabic language and culture, and who may engage in active but predominantly receptive use of Arabic at home. The range of learners within the Arabic background language learner pathway is diverse, defined for the most part by different waves of migration, and their use of Arabic may extend beyond the home to everyday interactions with Arabic-speaking friends and involvement in community organisations and events. Other learners may have been born in an Arabic-speaking country, where they may have completed some education.

A key dimension of the Australian Curriculum: Languages – Arabic involves understanding the interrelationship between language and culture. The curriculum is designed with an intercultural language learning orientation to enable students to participate meaningfully in language and cultural experiences, to develop new ways of seeing and being in the world from a bilingual perspective, and to understand more about themselves in the process.

Socialising

Initiate, sustain and extend interactions with others through seeking and giving advice, and discussing future plans, aspirations, relationships and social issues
[Key concepts: relationships, education, community, social issues; Key processes: advising, explaining, persuading, commenting, justifying]

Negotiate actions and contribute ideas, opinions and suggestions in interactions related to shared tasks, transactions and problem-solving, managing different views and perspectives
[Key concepts: roles, perspectives, responsibility; Key processes: commenting, selecting, evaluating]

Engage in language learning tasks and experiences, discussing and justifying ideas and opinions
[Key concepts: interconnection across concepts and actions, mindful learning; Key processes: discussing, connecting, justifying]

Informing

Locate, analyse, interpret and evaluate information from online and digital sources on issues of interest to young people, making connections with own experiences and considering various perspectives
[Key concepts: representation, perspective, private and public world; Key processes: summarising, interpreting, evaluating, connecting, relating]

Construct and present texts in varied styles and formats to convey own and others’ perspectives on ideas and information for different contexts, audiences and purposes
[Key concepts: audience, purpose, media, perspectives; Key processes: constructing, persuading, comparing, evaluating, connecting]

Creating

Explore a range of imaginative texts, analysing themes, values and techniques, and discussing how aspects of language and culture help create particular effects
[Key concepts: culture, emotion, values, style; Key processes: analysing, discussing, interpreting, evaluating]

Create and present imaginative texts to express ideas, attitudes and values through characters, events and settings for a range of audiences, contexts and purposes
[Key concepts: imagination, creativity, morality; Key processes: composing, engaging, projecting, presenting]

Translating

Translate and interpret texts from Arabic into English and vice versa for different audiences and contexts, and reflect on how cultural values, attitudes and perspectives are represented in each language
[Key concepts: audience, context, perspective, values; Key processes: reflecting, interpreting, comparing, analysing]

Create bilingual texts that reflect aspects of culture for Arabic- speaking and English-speaking audiences in the school and wider community, for example, pamphlets, travel brochures or road directories
[Key concepts: representation, cultural literacy; Key processes: interpreting, referencing, relating interculturally] (ACLARC179)

Reflecting

Reflect on how meanings vary according to cultural assumptions that Arabic and English speakers bring to interactions, and take responsibility for contributing to mutual understanding
[Key concepts: cultural assumptions, judgement; Key processes: reflecting, relating interculturally]

Reflect on own cultural identity and how it is both shaped by and influences ways of communicating, thinking and behaving
[Key concepts: perception, identity, communication; Key processes: discussing, evaluating, reflecting]

Systems of language

Understand how rules of Arabic pronunciation, including patterns of stress and rules of pause, and writing conventions enhance meaning and aesthetic effect
[Key concepts: fluency, complexity, appropriateness; Key processes: applying, analysing, synthesising]

Analyse how the use of grammatical elements such as indirect object, passive voice, dual form, verb tense and word order impact on tone, speech level and formality, and on meaning-making
[Key concepts: register, grammatical systems, meaning; Key processes: analysing, explaining, manipulating, applying]

Understand the relationship between purpose, audience, context, linguistic features, and the textual and cultural elements associated with different types of texts, such as persuasive, argumentative and expository texts
[Key concepts: perspective, purpose, audience; Key processes: analysing, correlating, discussing, explaining]

Language variation and change

Analyse and explain how variations in Arabic language use relate to roles, relationships and the context of interactions, and consider how and why these would differ from interactions in English or other languages represented in the classroom
[Key concepts: genre, variation, intercultural literacy; Key processes: analysing, explaining, reflecting]

Reflect on the dynamic nature of language, relating it to constantly changing environments and cultural conditions such as contact with other languages and cultures and changing circumstances in local and global contexts
[Key concepts: communication, influence, power of language, changing environment; Key processes: investigating, examining, analysing, explaining, reflecting]

Role of language and culture

Explore how language both shapes and reflects thoughts and world views and encourages action and reaction, and is shaped by community and individual cultural experiences
[Key concepts: cultural experience, thought, behaviour; Key processes: discussing, reflecting, expressing opinions]

By the end of Year 10, students use written and spoken Arabic to initiate, sustain and extend formal and informal interactions with the teacher, peers and others in a range of settings. They use language spontaneously to respond to others, seek and give advice for example, كيف أستطيع أن …؛ أعتقد أ…, describe relationships for example, عندي أصدقاء كثر؛ علاقتي بعائلتي وطيدة؛ أحب معلمتي كثيرا لأنها حنونة, discuss aspirations for example, أريد أن أعمل في مكدونالدز في العطلة؛ أريد أن اصبح طبيبا؛ أحلم أن أكون رائد فضاء and future plans (for example, في المستقبل؛ أريد أن أسافر إلى أوروبا؛ عندما أكبر؛ أريد أن أدخل الجامعة, compare experiences for example, بيتي القديم كان أجمل من بيتي الحالي , and justify opinions for example, لأن…؛ بسبب… ) on social issues of interest to them. They listen to different views and perspectives when interacting with others, and take action, solve problems and contribute ideas, opinions and suggestions. They apply pronunciation rules and rhythm to complex sentences to enhance spoken interactions. They analyse, interpret and evaluate information on topical issues of interest to young people, making connections with their own experiences and considering various perspectives. They convey information and perspectives using different text types and modes of presentation to suit different contexts and audiences and to achieve different purposes. They share their response to different imaginative texts by analysing themes for example, الفكرة الأساسية في النص؛ هدف النص؛ الموضوع , techniques for example, الكناية والاستعارة والتشبيه and values, and identify ways in which aspects of language and culture create particular effects, such as المشاعر التي يؤججها النص. Students create imaginative texts for a range of audiences, contexts and purposes, to express ideas, attitudes and values through characters, events and settings. When creating texts, they use a variety of grammatical elements to enhance meaning, such as indirect object, passive and active voice, negation for example, ليس عندي وقت؛ لا يوجد وقت؛ لن أجد الوقت, verb tense and word order for example, الجملة الاسمية والجملة الفعلية؛ ظرف الزمان أو المكان في بداية الجملة, and time and place clauses such as في وقت من الأوقات؛ في المجتمع الأسترالي؛ في الشارع العام . Students translate and interpret texts from Arabic into English and vice versa and explain how cultural values, attitudes and perspectives are represented. They create a range of bilingual texts for a variety of purposes and audiences. They explain the relationship between language, culture and identity, question perceptions, and modify language and behaviours in intercultural interactions as appropriate.

Students apply their understanding of complex pronunciation rules and writing conventions, such as stress patterns and rules of pause, to enhance meaning and aesthetic effect. They analyse a range of persuasive, argumentative and expository texts and explain the relationship between context, purpose, audience, linguistic features, and textual and cultural elements such as التحية والتوقيع في بداية الرسائل والتمني بالتوفيق والصحة. They explain how and why variations in Arabic language use relate to roles, relationships and contexts of interaction. Students analyse the ways in which languages change in response to changing environments. They explain how language use reflects thoughts and world views and is shaped by cultural experiences.

Years 9 and 10

The nature of the learners

At this level, students bring prior knowledge of Chinese language and culture, and a range of language learning strategies to their learning. They are increasingly aware of the world beyond their own and are engaging with youth, social and environmental issues. They are considering their future pathways and choices, including how Indonesian could be part of these.

Chinese language learning and use

Students use Chinese for self-expression, to obtain information and present a point of view to others, identifying subtle differences in word use and manipulating language for different purposes and audiences. Pinyin remains an important tool for learning the sound of new words, associating sounds with characters, and creating digital texts in characters.

Contexts of interaction

The likely contexts for interaction are extended to encompass the exchange of information and opinions on topics that will assist students to develop a deeper appreciation of cultural practices and traditions in diverse Chinese-speaking communities’. Learners interact with a broader range of Chinese speakers, using the spoken language to participate in discussions and other interactions.

Texts and resources

Text types include short informative texts from various websites, opinion pieces from personal blogs, and online chat forums conducted in Chinese with users in diverse locations. Students access information and explore texts written in Chinese, developing strategies to interpret meanings where not all characters are known.

Features of Chinese language use

Learners engage in cross-cultural communication and reflect on their own experiences in Chinese. Classmates work collaboratively to exchange information and ideas relating to contemporary issues or events and to share their life experiences. They use creative and expressive language in narratives to express their imagination.

Level of support

Learners are supported to develop autonomy as language learners and users, to self-monitor, and to adjust language in response to their experience in increasingly diverse contexts. They access characters and vocabulary from a range of print and digital resources and online and print dictionaries.

The role of English

Chinese is the language of instruction and interaction. Some discussion and reflection are necessarily carried out in English, but learners at this level are beginning to express

The place of the Chinese language and culture in Australia and the world

China’s official language is Modern Standard Chinese, or Putonghua (the common or shared language) in Chinese. The language is also referred to as Hanyu, the spoken language of the Han people, or Zhongwen, the written language of China. In Taiwan it is more usually called Huayu (Hwayu), the spoken language of people of Chinese ethnicity. This term is also used in Singapore.

A number of dialects remain in active use. In addition, the character system has undergone significant evolution, standardisation and simplification over time. In recent times, the need to create Chinese language texts in digital format has resulted in an international effort to standardise character forms and attribute a Unicode to each form so that computer operating systems internationally can generate and reproduce Chinese texts in both simplified and traditional/full-form characters. It is not common for new characters to be created. In contemporary overseas Chinese media, texts are commonly in either simplified or traditional/full-form characters, reflecting the diverse histories and preferences of these communities.

Communities of Chinese speakers are characterised by linguistic, cultural and geographic diversity and can be found in almost every country of the world. Many of these communities have a long tradition, and they are particularly strong on the Pacific coast of Canada and the USA, and in South-East Asia, Australia and some European countries. The history of the Chinese community in Australia extends back to the mid-1800s, and patterns of migration in recent decades have seen rapid growth in Australia’s Chinese population.

Current links between Australia and China are characterised by bilateral relationships in trade and investment, as well as educational exchanges, and research and development in science and technology. The movement of people and ideas, as well as economic, cultural and educational exchange, adds to the richness and complexity of this relationship.

The place of the Chinese language in Australian education

Chinese has been taught in Australian schools since the 1950s, and experienced rapid growth in the 1980s as China undertook a policy of open-door and economic reform. Chinese has always been taught as an additional language in Australia, but schools are now catering to increasingly varied cohorts of Chinese language learners, including overseas-born Chinese speakers. The population of Chinese teachers has also changed, with growing numbers of teachers from the People’s Republic of China now teaching in Australian schools.

Chinese is recognised as an important language for young Australians to learn as Australia progresses towards a future of increased trade and engagement with Asia.

The nature of Chinese language learning

For the purposes of the Australian Curriculum: Languages, ‘Chinese’ refers to Modern Standard Chinese, Pinyin Romanisation and simplified characters. Given the ongoing use of both forms of Chinese characters (simplified and full form) in the media, in education and in environmental print (advertisements and shop signs), some knowledge or awareness of both systems is an advantage, for Chinese speakers and Chinese learners alike. Although both writing systems and the range of dialects should be recognised in any Chinese language curriculum, the priority in education is Modern Standard Chinese and simplified characters as the internationally recognised ‘official form’ of Chinese.

English and Chinese have very different grammatical and vocabulary systems. The Chinese spoken language is characterised by a high number of homophones — tone-syllables that are used to represent more than one morpheme — each of which has its own particular character. The range of syllables in Chinese, while limited in comparison to English, does include some sounds unfamiliar to English speakers. The task of learning Chinese can be best addressed by a clear separation between learning to interact orally, supported by print materials in Pinyin, and learning to read and write, supported by texts and resources in characters.

Chinese characters are logographs composed of a number of components organised into a particular sequence within a square, parts of which are likely to suggest the sound and meaning of the whole character. Each character is a morpheme-syllable — it represents a syllable of sound and a unit of meaning. There are 3500 frequently used characters which are learnt by children in primary school in China. These characters are composed of approximately 500 distinct components which are used with varying degrees of frequency, and in different locations and for different functions. Literacy development (in terms of learning to read and write, and especially to map known oral vocabulary onto the appropriate written forms) is a time-consuming and challenging task. Additional characteristics of Chinese writing are that texts in Chinese characters do not display word-level spacing and texts may be written vertically and read from right to left down the page.

The Chinese spoken language is composed of approximately 400 syllables which may be used with one of four tones to create a total of approximately 1200 tone-syllables. Different systems have been developed to reproduce the sounds of the Chinese language using the Roman alphabet to assist learners who are already familiar with the Roman alphabet. Today the Pinyin system has international recognition as the principal means of representing the sounds of Chinese in alphabetic form. This system assists students of many language backgrounds to learn the correct sounds of Putonghua, and is an efficient means of text input when creating texts in characters using digital media. It is important to note that Pinyin is not recognised as a valid alternative to written expression in characters, as its readability is limited.

The diversity of learners of Chinese

Three pathways have been developed for Chinese, to cater to the three main cohorts of learners of Chinese in Australian schools. The Second Language Learner Pathway caters for students learning Chinese as a second or additional language. The Background Language Learner Pathway has been developed for students who have exposure to Chinese language and culture, and who may engage in some active but predominantly receptive use of Chinese at home. The First Language Learner Pathway caters for students who have had their primary socialisation as well as initial literacy development and primary schooling in Chinese, and who use Chinese at home. Schools will make decisions about which pathway best serves their students’ needs, and teachers will use the pathways to cater for all learners by making any appropriate adjustments to differentiate learning experiences for their students.

Socialising

Exchange and elaborate on suggestions and opinions in spoken interactions related to planning and negotiating activities and events, adjusting spoken language for familiar and unfamiliar participants, purposes and contexts
[Key concepts: celebrity, leisure and recreation, built and natural environment; Key processes: planning, negotiating, deciding].

Sustain and extend written exchanges about places, future plans, and contemporary social issues and activities
[Key concepts: relationships, values, beliefs, attitudes, future, work; Key processes: analysing, evaluating].

Informing

Analyse, compare and present perspectives on topics of interest, identifying the different ways emotions, intentions and ideas are expressed
[Key concepts: celebrity, leisure and recreation, place, education, youth, space; Key processes: comparing, contrasting, negotiating, deciding, persuading].

Collate and present different perspectives on a range of issues from different sources
[Key concepts: ideograph, issues, career, future; Key processes: extracting, collating, identifying].

Creating

Engage with a range of performance-based imaginative texts, and respond by discussing attitudes portrayed, expressing opinions, explaining themes, discussing characters, and considering language use and cultural meanings, and apply this knowledge to create imaginative texts
[Key concepts: imagination, creativity, emotion, love, hate; Key processes: expressing, responding].

Create written imaginative texts that express aspects of Chinese culture for different audiences and identify how some concepts can be readily translated between Chinese and English and some do not
[Key concepts: values, tradition; Key processes: creating, expressing, reading, writing].

Translating

Translate a range of Chinese texts and identify how some concepts can be readily translated between Chinese and English and some do not
[Key concepts: semantics, syntax: Key processes: translating, interpreting].

Create bilingual texts, identifying similarities between Chinese and English syntax and vocabulary, and explaining how these similarities can be used when transferring culture- or context-specific ideas from Chinese into English
[Key concepts: similarities, cultural positioning, sensitivity; Key processes: translating, captioning].

Reflecting

Compare the experiences of young Australians with those of young people in Chinese-speaking communities, reflecting on how these diverse experiences affect individuals’ identity, attitudes and beliefs
[Key concepts: behaviour, youth, lifestyle, social distance; Key processes: comparing, contrasting, reflecting]

Systems of language

Explain differences in intonation, rhythm and sounds when listening to speakers of different ages, genders and social positions.

Relate prior knowledge of character form and function to infer information about the sound and meaning of unfamiliar characters.

Analyse and examine how effective authors control sentence structure and use language to engage their audience.

Compare the purposes, text structures and language features of traditional and contemporary texts.

Language variation and change

Explain the dynamic nature of the Chinese language and how changes over time are influenced by local and global contexts and cultures.

Explain how language defines people’s roles as outsiders or insiders in groups and cultures.

The role of language and culture

Analyse the ways in which language choices reflect cultural practices and values and how language is used to express familiarity and distance between participants in interactions.

By the end of Year 10, students use spoken and written Chinese to sustain extended interactions with familiar and unfamiliar participants in a range of contexts (for example, interacting with Chinese-speaking students online; using Chinese to ask about items in a local Chinese grocery). Students use pinyin to transcribe spoken texts and use characters to create written texts. They identify key ideas and compare information from multiple sources (such as 新闻，访谈，podcast, 纪录片) to develop and substantiate their own position on topics of personal interest or issues of broader significance. They exchange ideas and opinions, for example, 为什么学中文很重要？； 澳大利亚的语言；好用的手机app, 我不太同意你的说法，因为…你觉得呢？； 虽然你说得有道理，但是… 所以我觉得… They speak with attention to pronunciation and tone. Students respond to and create a range of short informative and imaginative texts for a variety of audiences and purposes, for example, 什么是最健康的食物？ 如果我…的话 . They use a range of sentence structures and grammatical features to develop cohesion and coherence in these texts, including prepositional phrases to describe participants (for example, 我和 / 跟妈妈去买东西), and adverbs to express time, tense and frequency of events, for example, 总是，还没有. They use conjunctions (for example, 虽然如此…，尽管这样…但是…) and apply a range of stylistic devices such as rhetorical questions, quotes and 成语. They translate texts and produce bilingual texts, recognising that not all concepts can be readily translated Chinese and English. They engage with a range of imaginative texts, for example, 娱乐节目-小品，合唱，音乐录影，流行歌曲比赛，电视片，电影.

Students recognise how writers and speakers, including themselves, make deliberate choices when using language features and text structures. They recognise that language is dynamic and is influenced by time, place, setting, participants and contexts. When interacting with a range of texts they identify how audience and purpose shape their own and others’ language choices and interpretation of these texts. They explain how features of Chinese culture and language shape their own and others’ communication practices. Students reflect on how their own cultural experience impacts on interactions with Chinese speakers.

Years 9 and 10

The nature of the learners

At this level, students bring existing knowledge of French language and culture and a range of learning strategies to their learning. They are increasingly aware of the world beyond their own and are engaging with youth-related and social and environmental issues. They require continued guidance and mentoring, but are increasingly independent in terms of analysis, reflection and monitoring of their language learning and intercultural experiences. They are considering future pathways and options, including the possible role of French in these.

French language learning and use

This is a period of language exploration, vocabulary expansion and experimentation with different modes of communication (for example, digital and hypermedia, collaborative performance and group discussions). Learners become more confident in communicating in a wider range of contexts through greater control of language structures and increased understanding of the variability of language use. They use French to communicate and interact; to access and exchange information; to express feelings and opinions; to participate in imaginative and creative experiences; and to create, interpret and analyse a wider range of texts and experiences. They use French more fluently, with a greater degree of self-correction and repair. They reference the accuracy of their language use against a stronger frame of grammatical knowledge. They demonstrate understanding of language variation and change and of how intercultural experience, technology, media and globalisation influence communication.

Contexts of interaction

Learners interact with peers, teachers and other French speakers in immediate and local contexts, and with wider communities and cultural resources via virtual and online environments. They may access additional French experience through community events such as film festivals, interschool events or cultural performances.

Texts and resources

Learners use texts designed for language learning such as textbooks, teacher-generated materials and online resources. Learning is enriched by exposure to a range of authentic materials designed for or generated by young French speakers in France and other francophone regions, such as video clips, magazine features, television programs or advertisements. Students take some responsibility for sourcing additional materials to support their own learning.

Features of French language use

Learners expand their knowledge and control of grammatical elements such as verb tenses (l’imparfait, le futur simple, le conditionnel) and emphatic, direct and indirect object pronouns. They extend their knowledge of text types and language functions by maintaining a balance between form-focused activities and communicative tasks and performance. Task characteristics and conditions involve collaborative as well as independent language planning and performance, and strategic use of language and cultural resources. Tasks involve interpreting, creating, evaluating and performing. Learners engage in critical analysis of texts such as posters, advertisements or news reports, identifying how language choices reflect perspectives and shape meaning.

Learners examine the processes involved in learning and using a different language, recognising them as cognitive, cultural and personal as well as linguistic. They explore the reciprocal nature of intercultural communication: how moving between different languages and cultural systems impacts on ways of thinking and behaving; and how successful communication requires flexibility, awareness and openness to alternative ways. They develop the capacity to ‘decentre’ from normative ways of thinking and communicating, to consider themselves through the eyes of others, and to communicate in interculturally appropriate ways.

Level of support

Support at this level of learning includes provision of rich and varied stimulus materials, continued scaffolding and modelling of language functions and communicative tasks, and explicit instruction and explanation of the grammatical system, with opportunities for learners to discuss, clarify, practise and apply their knowledge. Critical and constructive teacher feedback combines with peer support and self-review to monitor and evaluate learning outcomes (for example, portfolios, peer review, e–journalling).

The role of English

English continues to be used for substantive discussion, explanation and analysis. This allows learners to talk in depth and detail about their experience of learning French, and about their thoughts on culture, identity and intercultural experience. English is the language of analysis and critique, supporting discussion of concepts such as ‘stereotypes’, ‘difference’, ‘diversity’ and ‘values’. It allows for a degree of expression and debate that is beyond learners’ communicative capabilities in French.

The place of the French language and culture in Australia and in the world

French is a major world language, spoken as the first language in more than two dozen countries on five continents and as an official language in 33 countries. First language speakers include the 67 million inhabitants of mainland France; those living in the territorial communities of New Caledonia, French Polynesia, and the Wallis and Futuna Islands, as well as in French overseas departments such as French Guiana, Martinique, Guadeloupe and the island of Réunion; 80 percent of the inhabitants of Québec; and significant communities in Luxembourg, Belgium, Monaco, Switzerland and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. There are also many French-based creole languages, such as Haitian, developed through French colonial contact. French is a language of diplomacy, used by many international organisations, and is the dominant working language at the European Court of Justice. French culture has contributed to the shaping of global movements and traditions associated with domains such as the arts, cinema, philosophy and cultural theory, as well as fashion, design, food and wine.

Australia and the French-speaking world have significant shared history and strong contemporary connections. First French arrivals in the eighteenth century were explorers, followed by small numbers of prisoners, refugees and government officials who involved themselves in trade, commerce and agriculture. Migrants from maritime regions such as Aquitaine and Normandy arrived in the early nineteenth century, followed by French recruits to the Victorian gold rush (1852–71). Many stayed and settled as agriculturalists, winemakers, traders and tradesmen. By the beginning of the twentieth century there was an established French community in the colony, with its own chamber of commerce, French-language newspaper, major shipping interests and involvement in the growing wool trade. The ends of both world wars brought further migrants, including war brides of Australian servicemen, and people taking advantage of the government-assisted passage scheme at the close of World War II. The gaining of independence by French colonies in the 1950s and 1960s saw numbers of French families choosing to migrate to Australia rather than return to France. The past five decades have continued to see a steady movement of migrants between France and other French-speaking countries and territories and Australia, with approximately 0.5 percent of the Australian population identifying as having French ancestry.

Current links between Australia and the French-speaking world are strong, characterised by bilateral relationships in trade and investment, educational exchanges, research and development in science and technology, humanitarian and environmental initiatives, and communications, strategic and defence priorities. The Pacific region is a particularly important focus of bilateral engagement. France is a leading destination for Australian travellers, and a partner in work-exchange opportunities in hospitality, tourism and international relations. Large numbers of young Australians visit France and other French-speaking countries each year on student or working visas.

The place of the French language in Australian education

French has been taught in Australian schools and universities since the 1880s. Originally offered with Italian and German as a modern language option alongside classical languages, it was valued as an important academic and cultural discipline and a means of accessing the intellectual and cultural heritage of France. The move to communicatively based approaches to teaching in the 1970s, together with improved communications and travel opportunities, increased interest in French as an option for more learners. As Asian languages joined European languages in school programs, numbers of students learning French declined, but French continues to be studied at all levels across all states and territories and is currently the third most widely studied language in schools. Wider community interest in learning French is strong, as evidenced by enrolments in courses offered by regional branches of the Alliance Française and the proliferation of informal community-based French conversation groups and language clubs.

The nature of French language learning

French is an Indo-European language and belongs to the family of Romance languages derived from the spoken Latin language of the Roman Empire. It is closely related to English, due to the shared influence of Latin and to the fact that French was the official language of the English court, administration and culture for 300 years after the Norman Conquest in the eleventh century. This involvement with French contributed significantly to the developing English language. There are more than 1700 words that are used in both languages (for example, danger, saint, magazine, tact). In this sense French is already partly familiar to English-speaking learners. This familiarity supports early stages of learning.

French uses the same Roman alphabet as English, although its pronunciation of the letters differs significantly and the use of accents on some letters is an additional complexity for English-speaking learners. There are many similarities between the two grammatical systems, such as the same basic subject-verb-object order, but also differences, such as in the use of tenses, the gendering of nouns and adjectives, the marking of plural forms of nouns and adjectives, and the use of articles and capital letters. The sound system is usually the main challenge for English-speaking learners, including as it does some novel sounds (such as the pronunciation of the letters r and u), letters which are silent, and unfamiliar liaisons and intonation and rhythm patterns.

The diversity of learners of French

French programs in Australian schools are offered to a range of learners, including some who are following immersion or partial immersion programs. Many are monolingual English speakers who are learning French as their first experience of another language. A relatively small number have existing connections with French, either as background speakers, second- or third-generation French Australians, or through professional, personal or other forms of connection. For learners from language backgrounds with very different grammatical and vocabulary systems such as Chinese or Korean, learning French will represent similar challenges to those which frame their experience of learning English as their language of schooling; but these learners have the advantage of having developed skills and understandings associated with learning and using additional languages.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages for French is pitched to second language learners; that is, to the dominant cohort of learners in the current Australian context for whom French is an additional language. It has been developed according to two main learning trajectories for these learners, Foundation to Year 10 Sequence and Years 7–10 (Year 7 Entry) Sequence. Teachers will use the curriculum to cater for learners of different backgrounds by making appropriate adjustments to differentiate learning experiences for these students.

For students learning French for the first time in a school language program, a key dimension of the curriculum involves understanding the cultural dimension that shapes and is shaped by the language. The curriculum is designed with an intercultural language learning orientation to enable students to participate meaningfully in intercultural experiences, to develop new ways of seeing and being in the world, and to understand more about themselves in the process.

Socialising

Discuss and compare young people’s interests, behaviours and values across cultural contexts, using formal and informal registers
[Key concepts: perspectives, generation, change, cultural diversity; Key processes: exchanging, responding, discussing]

Engage in shared activities such as planning and managing events, exchanging resources and information
[Key concepts: communication, collaboration, information exchange; Key processes: calculating, predicting, planning]

Compare and reflect on the experience of learning and using French
[Key concepts: metalanguage, reflection, awareness; Key processes: expressing, reflecting, analysing]

Informing

Research and evaluate information from different perspectives on local and global issues, identifying how culture and context affect how information is presented
[Key concepts: standpoint, representation, cultural literacy; Key processes: researching, comparing, analysing]

Convey information on selected topics, using different modes of presentation to suit different audiences or to achieve different purposes
[Key concepts: content, audience, mode; Key processes: selecting, designing, aligning]

Creating

Analyse how expressive and imaginative texts create aesthetic, humorous or emotional effects in ways that reflect cultural influence
[Key concepts: culture, humour, expression, tradition; Key processes: interpreting, analysing, evaluating]

Create imaginative texts involving moods and effects designed to engage different audiences
[Key concepts: imagination, creativity, stimulus; Key processes: planning, projecting, engaging, entertaining]

Translating

Consider the nature of translating and interpreting and the role of culture when transferring meaning from one language to another
[Key concepts: culture, text, context, perspective; Key processes: comparing, analysing, critical and cultural reading]

Create glossaries to interpret cultural aspects of contemporary and traditional French texts
[Key concepts: representation, critical and cultural literacy; Key processes: referencing, explaining, interpreting]

Reflecting

Reflect on the experience of learning and using French, considering how intercultural communication involves shared responsibility for meaning making.

[Key concepts: reciprocity, understanding, intercultural experience; Key processes: communicating, observing, reflecting, analysing, responding]

Reflect on own cultural identity and how it shapes personal ways of communicating and thinking
[Key concepts: identity, culture, communication; Key processes: reflecting, explaining]

Systems of language

Increase control of regular and irregular elements of spoken and written French, using elements such as liaisons, accents and expression
[Key concepts: liaisons, accents, expression, style; Key processes: recognising, classifying, discriminating]

Analyse how grammatical elements such as tenses and verb moods impact on the making of meaning
[Key concepts: grammatical analysis, register, tenor; Key processes: identifying, defining, classifying]

Analyse how different types of text incorporate cultural and contextual elements
[Key concepts: context, culture, perspective; Key processes: comparing, analysing, identifying]

Language variation and change

Analyse and explain how and why language is used differently in different contexts and relationships
[Key concepts: genres, register, variation; Key processes: grammatical and lexical analysis]

Explore changes to both French and Australian English, and identify reasons for these changes, such as technology, popular culture and intercultural exchange
[Key concepts: globalisation, exchange, influence; Key processes: mapping, classifying, analysing]

Identify examples of French language used to influence social and cultural relationships and practices
[Key concepts: authority, language as power, inclusion, exclusion; Key processes: scanning, selecting, analysing]

Role of language and culture

Understand that language and culture are interrelated, that they shape and are shaped by each other
[Key concepts: culture, language, meaning; Key processes: discussing, reflecting, comparing]

By the end of Year 10, students use written and spoken French to communicate with teachers, peers and others in a range of settings and for a range of purposes They use language to access and exchange information on a broad range of social, cultural and youth-related issues (for example, student politics and priorities, the environment, virtual worlds). They socialise, express feelings and opinions, and use expressive and descriptive language to participate in different modes of imaginative and creative expression. They initiate conversations and discussion (such as Qu’est-ce que vous pensez au sujet de … ? A mon avis …), change or elaborate on topics (for example, Oui, mais … d’autre part …), and provide feedback and encouragement (for example, En effet – c’est intéressant; et toi, qu’est-ce que tu en dis?). They employ self-correction and repair strategies, and use non-verbal elements such as gestures, pacing and pitch to maintain momentum and engage interest. They locate and evaluate information on local and global issues from a range of perspectives and sources. They produce informative, persuasive and imaginative texts, incorporating relative clauses and adverbial phrases, using some specialised vocabulary and cohesive devices. Students use présent, passé composé, imparfait and futur proche tenses in their own texts, and the conditional tense to express intention or preference (for example, Je voudrais aller au cinéma ce soir). They use with support futur and plus-que-parfait tenses. Students translate and interpret a range of French and English texts, comparing versions and analysing processes.

Students explain differences between spoken and written French, and identify the contribution of non-verbal elements of spoken communication and the crafted nature of written text (for example, grammatical elaboration, cohesion). They provide examples of the blurring of these differences in modes of communication such as text messages, emails or conversation transcripts. They describe how languages change, borrow from, build upon and blend with each other (for example, le franglais). They demonstrate understanding of the power of language to shape relationships, to include and exclude. They use appropriate terminology to explain some irregularities of grammatical patterns and rules (such as irregular verb forms, different word order of some adjective-noun combinations), and textual conventions associated with familiar genres such as invitations, apologies or music reviews. They reflect on their own cultural perspectives and discuss how these are impacted by French language and culture learning.

Years 9 and 10

The nature of the learners

At this level, students bring to their learning existing knowledge of German language and culture and a range of learning strategies and experiences. They are increasingly aware of the world beyond their own and are engaging with youth-related and social and environmental issues. They require continued guidance and mentoring but work increasingly independently to analyse, reflect on and monitor their language learning and intercultural experiences. They are considering future pathways and options, including how German could be part of these.

German language learning and use

Learners interact with peers, teachers and other German speakers in immediate and local contexts relating to their social and learning worlds, and with unfamiliar German-speaking communities and cultural resources through a range of physical, virtual and online environments. This is a period of language exploration and vocabulary expansion, and of experimentation with a wider range of modes of communication, for example, digital, collaborative performance and group discussions. Greater control of language structures and systems, and understanding of the variability of language use increase confidence and interest in communicating in a growing range of contexts. Learners use German to initiate, sustain and extend interactions in situations such as negotiating a resolution to a disagreement; to access and exchange information; to express feelings and opinions; to participate in imaginative and creative experiences; to develop, analyse, interpret and translate a wider range of texts and experiences; and to reflect on and evaluate learning experiences. They use German more fluently, with a greater degree of self-correction and repair, and reference the accuracy of their target language use against a stronger frame of knowledge of grammar. They demonstrate understanding of language variation and change; of how intercultural experience, technology, media and globalisation influence language use and forms of communication. Task characteristics and conditions are more complex and challenging. They provide opportunities for collaborative language planning and performance, the development of translating and interpreting tools, and strategic use of language and cultural resources.

Contexts of interaction

The contexts for learning and using German are regularly extended beyond the classroom. Learners interact with teachers, peers and members of German-speaking communities face-to-face and via online technologies. They have opportunities to engage with German speakers and cultural events in the wider community, such as in the media, guest speakers, exchange assistants/students, film festivals, community events or in-country travel.

Texts and resources

Learners build on and extend their knowledge of different types of text and language functions through balancing focused attention to language forms and structures with text creation and performance. They work with a wider range of fiction and nonfiction texts, which allows for exploration of themes of personal and societal relevance, for example, global issues, identity and relationships, diversity and inclusivity. They develop additional analytical tools, including consideration of literary form and devices, and ways in which language choices empower, build identity and are influenced by audience, context and purpose. They identify how texts shape perspectives and meaning.

Features of German language use

Learners expand their knowledge and control of grammatical elements such as register, future tense, reflexive verbs and subordinate clauses. In-depth investigation of the links between German, English and other languages they know strengthens learners’ intercultural capability. They examine the processes involved in learning and using a different language, recognising them as cognitive, cultural and personal as well as linguistic. They explore the reciprocal nature of intercultural communication: how moving between different languages and cultural systems impacts on ways of thinking and behaving; and how successful communication requires flexibility, awareness and openness to alternative ways. They develop the capacity to ‘decentre’ from normative ways of thinking and communicating, to consider themselves through the eyes of others, and to communicate in interculturally appropriate ways.

Level of support

Learners are increasingly aware of and responsible for their own learning, working independently and collaboratively to address their learning needs. Resources are required to support this process, such as technological support for vocabulary expansion, graphic organisers, modelled texts, dictionaries and teacher feedback. Students require continued explicit instruction on the grammatical system and opportunities to discuss, practise and apply their knowledge. They monitor their own progress and learning, such as through the use of e-journals or folios, using these to reflect on their language learning and intercultural experience.

The role of English

While sustained use of German is expected at this level, English continues to be used when necessary for substantive discussion, explanation and analysis. This allows learners to communicate in depth and detail about their experience of learning German and to express ideas, views and experiences at a level beyond their current level of proficiency in German. English may be used in conjunction with German to conduct research, to translate or to communicate bilingually.

The place of the German language and culture in Australia and in the world

German is an official language of Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Liechtenstein, Belgium, Luxembourg and in South Tyrol in Italy. It is also used as an official regional or auxiliary language in a number of other countries in Europe, and in Namibia in Africa. As one of three procedural languages for the European Union and the first language of 120 million Europeans, the German language showcases the cultural diversity and range of these German-speaking communities. In particular, the interplay between culture and language can be seen in the global influence of the past and contemporary achievements of German-speaking communities in architecture, the arts, engineering, philosophy, recreational pursuits, and scientific innovations, particularly those related to environmental sustainability. The conceptual understandings that sit behind this influence are reflected in the selection of text types and key concepts through which students will have opportunities to use German actively.

The place of the German language in Australian education

German has been taught in schools, universities and communities in Australia since the mid-1800s and by the 1930s was a well-established part of the Australian educational landscape. As well as being a core element of the tradition of a broad humanistic education, German can also be seen as a cultural marker of the waves of immigration from Western Europe. Migration from German-speaking countries is ongoing, thus continuing the contribution that German speakers have made in shaping Australian culture from the time of the first German settlements.

Strong partnerships have developed with organisations such as the Goethe-Institut, the German Embassy, the German-Australian Chamber of Industry and Commerce, the Bavarian Youth Ring student exchange organisation (BJR) and the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), to provide solid support for the teaching and learning of German in Australia.

The nature of German language learning

German and English are both derived from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family and share many similar lexical items (cognates) as well as grammatical features. Consequently, a native speaker of English has some immediate access to spoken and written German, and from an early stage learners can engage with authentic texts. Modern German also borrows from modern English, for example, der Computer, as does English from German, for example, ‘kindergarten’. German is a pluricentric language with different standards and regional varieties.

German is a largely phonetic language with many of the same sounds as English, and the same Roman alphabet. In addition to the standard 26 letters, there is the use of the Umlaut (Ä/ä, Ö/ö and Ü/ü) and the Eszett (ß). A major difference in orthography from English is the capitalisation of all nouns, a feature that assists the comprehensibility of written texts.

German is well known for its morphological creativity in forming long words through compounding. The German language has two different forms of address, formal and informal, dependent on the relationship between the communicators. German speakers generally rely more heavily than native speakers of Australian English on the use of the imperative to effect action, thus sometimes appearing to be more direct.

Other distinctive features of German are noun gender (masculine, feminine or neuter) and the case system. Changes in the articles of nouns and in pronouns and adjective endings mark the four cases, indicating subject and direct and indirect objects, as well as possession. Marking cases in this way leads to flexibility in word order which is not possible in English. Sentences may appear long to English users, but the case markers and clear and consistent punctuation rules aid comprehension.

The diversity of learners of German

The cohort of learners of German in Australian schools generally comprises students who are second language learners.

Within this pathway, learners demonstrate a range of degrees of exposure to and experience in German. Some learners will have little familiarity with German, although they will most likely have experience of English, another Germanic language; others will have German heritage or a family member who has knowledge of German and/or connections with German-speaking countries.

There are a number of different types of schools in Australia that cater for a range of pathways. In addition, community-driven early-years playgroups are growing in number. Mainstream school provision for background learners is limited, although there are some notable examples of bilingual programs which also cater for non-background students. There are also several complementary providers for German, including distance education and community schools.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages, Foundation to Year 10 – German is pitched to second language learners; that is, to the dominant cohort of learners of the language in the current Australian context. Teachers will make appropriate adjustments to the curriculum to cater for learners of different backgrounds and differentiate learning experiences for these students.

Socialising

Initiate and participate in sustained interactions, using formal and informal registers, to seek and give advice, to describe past events, future aspirations and social issues, and to express and justify opinions
[Key concepts: perspectives, future, past; Key processes: sustaining interactions, discussing, justifying, proposing]

Engage in a range of shared activities such as managing events and arguing for a course of action by persuading others to change their opinion and/or behaviour
[Key concepts: information exchange, issues, collaboration; Key processes: planning, negotiating, communicating]

Extend language to describe and reflect on the experience of learning and using German
[Key concepts: reflection, metalanguage; Key processes: reflecting, expressing, evaluating]

Informing

Investigate, synthesise and evaluate information from different perspectives on local and global issues, identifying how context and culture affect how information is presented
[Key concepts: representation, community, world issues; Key processes: researching, synthesising, evaluating, representing]

Convey ideas, information and views from multiple sources, using different modes of presentation to suit different audiences and to achieve different purposes
[Key concepts: representation, discovery, interconnection; Key processes: presenting, representing, reporting]

Creating

Engage with a variety of imaginative texts, analysing the main ideas, values and techniques, and discussing issues and themes, using evidence from the texts to support their views
[Key concepts: imagery, metaphor, emotion, themes; Key processes: analysing, comparing, persuading]

Create a variety of imaginative texts using different devices such as imagery and sound effects to engage a range of audiences
[Key concepts: imagination, perspectives, setting, character; Key processes: entertaining, composing, performing]

Translating

Interpret and/or translate German and English texts, identifying and explaining culture-specific aspects and expressions that do not translate easily
[Key concepts: culture, context, idioms; Key processes: interpreting, translating, comparing, analysing]

Create bilingual texts which reflect and explain aspects of culture and language for different German-speaking and Australian audiences
[Key concepts: interconnection, assumptions, sensitivity; Key processes: explaining, translating, relating interculturally]

Reflecting

Make choices while using German, recognising own assumptions and responsibility for modifying language and behaviours in relation to different cultural perspectives
[Key concepts: judgement, reciprocity, cultural behaviour; Key processes: questioning, modifying behaviour, taking responsibility]

Explore and express own identity and ability to act as a cultural mediator between German speakers and Australians
[Key concepts: cultural mediation, perspective, diversity; Key processes: evaluating, exploring, explaining]

Systems of language

Explore the features of spoken and written language, and apply variations in relation to features such as stress, pronunciation and contractions
[Key concepts: stress, rhythm, application; Key processes: exploring, reproducing, applying]

Understand and apply in complex sentences a range of vocabulary and grammatical structures, including future tense, imperative mood and some relative pronouns, for the purposes of interaction, narration, description, persuasion, argument and exposition
[Key concepts: syntax, mood, modality, grammar patterns; Key processes: classifying, applying, experimenting, manipulating]

Describe the interrelationship between text types, language choices, audience, context and purpose, and identify the role culture plays in the creation and interpretation of texts
[Key concepts: connections, textual conventions, text types; Key processes: structuring, applying, describing, transforming]

Language variation and change

Analyse and explain how and why language is used differently in a range of texts, considering features such as dialects and register
[Key concepts: register, constraints; Key processes: analysing, comparing, explaining]

Understand the influence of language on people’s actions, values and beliefs, and appreciate the scale and importance of linguistic diversity
[Key concepts: influence, power, diversity; Key processes: reflecting, understanding]

Role of language and culture

Understand that language and culture are interrelated and that they shape and are shaped by each other
[Key concepts: culture, connections, perceptions; Key processes: reflecting, analysing, discussing]

By the end of Year 10, students use written and spoken German to initiate and sustain interactions with teachers, peers and others in a range of settings and for a range of purposes. They use language spontaneously in the classroom environment to seek clarification and advice, assist others, initiate conversations and discussions, debate a course of action, share learning strategies and comment on the contribution of others, for example, Meinen Sie, dass …? Was würdest du an meiner Stelle tun? Simon hat Unrecht. Meiner Meinung nach ist Kims Geschichte am lustigsten. Ich sehe deutsche Filme, um meine Aussprache zu verbessern. They describe plans and aspirations using future tense, for example, Wir werden bald in Deutschland sein. Ich werde sicher die 12. Klasse zu Ende machen, und dann werde ich hoffentlich studieren. They state facts and relate experiences, such as, Wir haben fast alle unsere Lernziele für das Halbjahr erreicht. Mit 5 Jahren spielte ich mit Puppen und konnte lesen., using past tense forms, Perfekt and Imperfekt, of regular and irregular verbs. When speaking, they use appropriate pronunciation, intonation and stress in a range of sentence types, including variations such as contractions. They locate, synthesise and evaluate information on local and global issues from a range of perspectives and sources. They present ideas, information and views in a range of texts selected to suit audience, purpose and context. They analyse the main ideas and themes in imaginative texts and use evidence to support their views. They plan, draft and present imaginative texts using literary devices (imagery, similes, onomatopoeia) to engage a range of audiences. When creating informative, persuasive and imaginative texts, students use a variety of conjunctions, relative clauses and other cohesive devices to build cohesion, for example, Ich skype oft mit den Austauschschülern, die letztes Jahr bei uns waren. They specify and describe people, places and objects by applying knowledge of the case system to articles, common demonstratives and possessives followed by adjectives, for example, Ich habe mit meinem neuen Computer große Probleme. They interpret and/or translate excerpts from German texts, identifying and explaining culture-specific aspects, and create texts that reflect and explain aspects of culture and language for different German-speaking and Australian audiences. They identify and challenge their own assumptions and take responsibility for modifying language and behaviours in relation to different cultural perspectives.

Students identify ways that language influences people’s actions, values and beliefs, and appreciate the scale and importance of linguistic diversity. They explain the roles of different German cases (nominative, accusative, dative and genitive) and tenses, and variations in spoken and written German in relation to pronunciation, spelling and punctuation. They explain the relationship between text type, audience and purpose. They identify the role culture plays in the creation and interpretation of texts, and explain how language and text features (layout, structure and formal/informal register) are used differently in a range of texts. They explain ways in which language and culture are interrelated and influence each other.

Years 9 and 10

The nature of the learners

At this level, students bring to their learning existing knowledge of Modern Greek language and culture and a range of strategies. They are increasingly aware of the world beyond their own and are engaging with youth-related and social and environmental issues. They require continued guidance and mentoring but work increasingly independently to analyse, reflect on and monitor their language learning and intercultural experiences. They are considering future pathways and options, including the possible role of Modern Greek in these.

Modern Greek language learning and use

This is a period of language exploration, vocabulary expansion and experimentation. As learners develop greater control of language structures and systems, their confidence increases, as does their interest in communicating in a wider range of contexts. They use Modern Greek to communicate and interact, to access and exchange information, to express thoughts and opinions, and to participate in imaginative and creative experiences Αύριο στη Θεσσαλονίκη ο καιρός θα είναι …, Τι γνώμη έχετε για τη σχολική στολή;). They demonstrate understanding of language variation and change, and of how intercultural experience, technology, media and globalisation influence language use and forms of communication (το φαστφουντάδικο, το ματς).

Contexts of interaction

Learners interact with peers, the teacher and other Greek speakers locally and globally through a variety of means and modes of communication, including digital, online, collaborative performance and group discussions. They may participate in wider experiences related to Greek language and culture, such as film festivals, film competitions, drama and art competitions and programs, local Greek festivals, interacting with Greek-speaking guests, artists and musicians, and in-country study trips. These authentic experiences give learners a sense of connectedness and purpose, and make use of and extend their capability beyond the school context.

Texts and resources

Media resources, fiction and non-fiction texts, performances and research projects allow for exploration of themes of personal and contemporary relevance, for example, global issues such as the environment (Πώς θα προστατέψουμε το δάσος;), Greek-specific issues such as the diaspora, identity and relationship issues such as the concept of ‘journey and belonging’, and questions of diversity and inclusivity such as the concept of ‘One World’.

Features of Modern Greek language use

Learners communicate with greater fluency, and use their knowledge of grammar and orthographic systems, such as understanding of primary tenses and declensions, to self-correct more readily. They investigate texts through more critical analysis, identifying how language choices reflect perspectives and shape meaning. Task characteristics at this level are more complex and challenging. Elements of tasks may involve interpreting, creating, evaluating and performing, collaborative as well as independent language planning and performance, and development and strategic use of language and cultural resources.

Learners understand the relationship between language, culture and identity. They explore in more depth and detail the cultural, personal and linguistic processes involved in learning and using a different language. They recognise that deriving meaning from a different language involves interpretation and personal response as well as accurate translation and factual reporting. They explore intercultural communication, and how moving between different languages and cultural systems enables flexibility, and awareness of and openness to alternative ways.

Level of support

Support at this level of learning includes provision of rich and varied stimulus materials, continued scaffolding and modelling of language functions and communicative tasks, and explicit instruction and explanation of the grammatical system, with opportunities for learners to discuss, clarify, practise and apply their knowledge. Critical and constructive teacher feedback combines with peer support and self-review to monitor and evaluate learning outcomes, for example, through portfolios, peer review, e-journals.

The role of English

Modern Greek is used as the primary medium of interaction in both language-oriented and most content-oriented tasks. While learners at this level are able to express some complex concepts and reactions in Modern Greek, English is the medium they use for substantive discussion, explanation and analysis. This allows learners to communicate in depth and detail about their experience of learning Modern Greek, and their thoughts on culture, identity and intercultural experience, at a level that may be beyond their existing ability in Modern Greek.

The place of the Modern Greek language and culture in Australia and the world

Modern Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus. It is spoken throughout the world – wherever there are Greek-speaking communities. One of the major characteristics of the extensive Greek Diaspora is the maintenance of the Greek language and culture, especially in Australia, the United States, Canada, Britain, Germany, countries of Latin America and Africa, and areas around the Black Sea, the Balkans, the Mediterranean and the Middle East. Modern Greek is also one of the official languages of the European Union.

The Hellenic civilisation and language have significantly shaped Western civilisation, particularly in the areas of science, the arts, architecture, medicine, mathematics, literature, politics and philosophy. Modern literature and thought in particular have been influenced by the works of Homer and the ancient Greek playwrights, philosophers and historians. The Greek language gives expression to a rich and varied culture and tradition and is still used widely in many fields to coin new terms. The study of the etymology of English words with Greek origins helps in not only the understanding of English and other languages, but also a broad range of other areas of study.

The first Greek people who came to Australia arrived in the 1820s and since then there have been waves of Greek migration to Australia, in particular throughout the early 1900s and prior to World War II. The largest periods of mass migration occurred between the 1950s and 1970s. The migrants’ need to maintain Greek identity through language, culture and religion contributed towards the Greek language flourishing in the home and in the delivery of Greek in after-hours school settings.

Historically, Greeks have made and continue to make a significant contribution to the development and enrichment of Australian society, not only in the areas of commerce, agriculture, industry, trade, education, the arts, medicine, law, politics, government and scientific research, but also in cultural and lifestyle influences.

The place of the Modern Greek language in Australian education

After the early settlement of Greeks in Australia, after-hours community schools were set up to teach the language, predominantly to children of Greek immigrants. From the 1970s, due to government policies supporting multiculturalism, Modern Greek programs were introduced at all levels in the Australian education system, including tertiary level, offering all students regardless of their background the opportunity to study Modern Greek.

Modern Greek is currently taught across all school sectors and contexts.

The nature of Modern Greek language learning

The modern standard version of Modern Greek (Neoelliniki: Νεοελληνική) is the demotic form of the written and spoken language and is the official language taught worldwide. It is an alphabetic (non-Roman) language, with 24 letters, and has remained relatively unchanged since ancient times. Modern Greek is a phonetic language, with a simple form of accentuation and highly structured grammar and syntax. Although many English words are derived from Greek, the language structure is very different. There are, for example, marked differences in the use of articles, gender agreement for adjectives and nouns, verb conjugations, declensions of nouns and variations in word order. These distinctive features influence how Modern Greek is taught in the classroom. They will be seen through the key text types and processes chosen as a vehicle to develop learners’ understanding of them and in the context for interactions through which learners will develop the skills for their sustained use.

The diversity of learners of Modern Greek

Due to the passage of time, shifting trends in migration and the changed nature of the learner, Modern Greek is no longer the exclusive domain of students of Greek background. Learners of Modern Greek in Australian schools come from a diversity of backgrounds, including learners for whom this represents a first experience of learning Modern Greek. Learners of Modern Greek may also be background speakers or second-, third- or fourth-generation Australians who may have connections to the customs and traditions of their heritage but whose linguistic knowledge may be limited or non-existent.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages for Modern Greek is pitched to second language learners, the dominant cohort of learners in the Australian context. There are two learning pathways for students: the Foundation to Year 10 Sequence and the Years 7–10 (Year 7 Entry) Sequence. Teachers will use the curriculum to cater for learners of different backgrounds by making appropriate adjustments to personalise learning experiences.

For students learning Modern Greek for the first time in a school language program, a key dimension of the curriculum involves understanding the cultural dimension that shapes and is shaped by the language. The curriculum is designed with an intercultural language learning orientation to enable students to participate meaningfully in language and cultural experiences, to develop new ways of seeing and being in the world, and to understand more about themselves in the process.

Socialising

Initiate, sustain and extend interactions by exchanging experiences, seeking and giving advice, and discussing aspirations and relationships
[Key concepts: social awareness, aspirations, interconnectedness, wellbeing; Key processes: interacting, reflecting, comparing]

Take action, and contribute ideas and opinions in collaborative tasks, activities and experiences which involve making decisions, negotiating, planning and shared transactions
[Key concepts: friendship, task, perspective, negotiation; Key processes: transacting, expressing points of view, understanding]

Participate in and sustain classroom interactions by elaborating on opinions and ideas and discussing the opinions and views of others
[Key concepts: interaction, contribution; Key processes: stating views, discussing, sharing experiences]

Informing

Obtain, analyse and evaluate information and ideas from multiple spoken, written, print or digital sources on a range of issues
[Key concepts: information, representation; Key processes: analysing, evaluating, synthesising]

Adapt and present information, ideas and opinions on a range of issues in a variety of text types and modes selected to suit audience and purpose
[Key concepts: information, representation, evaluation; Key processes: interpreting, evaluating, explaining, synthesising, presenting]

Creating

Interpret and discuss different imaginative texts, expressing and justifying opinions on aspects such as themes, mood, emotions and language choices
[Key concepts: imagination, experience; Key processes: interpreting, relating, connecting, justifying]

Create and perform a variety of imaginative texts for different audiences, manipulating language and experimenting with different techniques such as imagery or sound effects
[Key concepts: imagination, experience; Key processes: experimenting, performing, expressing]

Translating

Translate and analyse a range of texts from Greek to English and vice versa, comparing interpretations and explaining differences in meaning
[Key concepts: equivalence, representation; Key processes: translating, analysing, comparing]

Create a range of bilingual texts for a variety of purposes and audiences, reflecting on how meaning can be conveyed effectively
[Key concepts: bilingualism, meaning; Key processes: adjusting, interpreting, reflecting]

Reflecting

Reflect on issues related to intercultural experiences, questioning preconceptions and generalisations, and taking responsibility for modifying language and behaviours
[Key concepts: understanding, intercultural experience; Key processes: communicating, observing, reflecting, responding]

Engage in intercultural experience, reflecting on own cultural identity and how this shapes personal ways of communicating and thinking
[Key concepts: self, interconnection across concepts and actions; Key processes: reflecting, discussing, analysing, evaluating]

Systems of language

Use pronunciation rules and apply features of spoken Greek such as intonation, stress and rhythm to polysyllabic words, and extend to more advanced spelling and punctuation rules
[Key concept: sound and writing systems; Key processes: applying, expanding]

Understand and apply grammatical structures, such as passive and active voice, negation, word order and time clauses, recognising that they serve particular functions and that grammatical choices shape meaning
[Key concept: grammatical system; Key processes: analysing, selecting, applying]

Discuss the interrelationship between linguistic elements, context, purpose, audience and structure of a wide range of text types, such as poetry, biographies, blogs, emails and advertisements, and identify how cultural elements are incorporated
[Key concepts: context, culture, perspective; Key processes: comparing, analysing, identifying]

Language variation and change

Analyse culturally specific ways of interacting in Greek and how and why language use varies according to cultural contexts, considering why these differ from interactions in English or in other languages
[Key concepts: norms, variation; Key processes: analysing, comparing]

Reflect on the dynamic and ecological nature of language, recognising that Modern Greek still uses some words and phrases from earlier Greek versions of its language, and that all languages influence each other
[Key concepts: dynamic systems, impact; Key processes: analysing, reflecting]

Role of language and culture

Understand that language, culture and communication are interrelated and shaped by each other, and recognise how this impacts on attitudes and beliefs
[Key concepts: culture, language, meaning, values and attitudes; Key processes: discussing, reflecting, comparing]

By the end of Year 10, students use written and spoken Greek to initiate, sustain and extend formal and informal interactions with teachers, peers and others in a range of settings such as, Τι θα κάνεις μετά το σχολείο; They use language spontaneously to respond to others, seek and give advice (for example, Δεν ξέρω τι να κάνω), contribute ideas and opinions, describe relationships, discuss aspirations (for example, Θέλω να κάνω ένα ταξίδι), compare experiences and express opinions on issues of interest such as, Πώς θα προστατέψουμε το δάσος; They interact with others to take action, make decisions, negotiate, plan and organise events and complete transactions. They sustain and extend conversations by elaborating on opinions and ideas, expanding questions, and seeking and discussing responses and opinions. They apply appropriate pronunciation, rhythm and stress in spoken Greek in their interactions. They analyse and evaluate ideas and information obtained from multiple spoken and written sources on a range of issues such as, Η τεχνολογία σήμερα, Πού μιλάνε τα ελληνικά; They present information using different text types and modes of presentation to suit different audiences and to achieve different purposes (for example, blog για το σχολικό περιοδικό για τη μόδα, μιά μουσική εκδήλωση). They share their responses to different imaginative texts by expressing and justifying opinions on language use, themes, moods and emotions. They manipulate language and use different techniques to produce imaginative texts for different audiences. When creating texts, they use a variety of grammatical elements, such as passive and active voice (for example, Καθόμουν, Θα καθίσω, Έλα κάθισε), negation (for example, Ούτε τώρα, ούτε ποτέ), word order and time clauses (for example, Μιλούσε στο τηλέφωνο όταν τον είδα), to shape meaning (for example, Όταν έρθεις σπίτι μου, θα πάμε να φάμε έξω). They accurately apply rules of punctuation and spelling to their own written constructions. Students translate and analyse a range of texts, compare interpretations and explain differences. They create a range of bilingual texts that convey intended meaning for a variety of purposes and audiences. They explain the relationship between language, culture and identity, question assumptions and modify language and behaviours in intercultural interactions as appropriate.

Students analyse a range of texts to identify cultural elements and perspectives and to explain the interrelationship between linguistic elements, context, purpose, audience and structure. They give examples of how language use varies according to cultural contexts, explaining why Greek interactions differ from those in English or other languages. They explain why Greek, like other languages, is fluid and dynamic as well as solid and influential. They explain ways in which language and culture are interrelated and influence each other.

Years 9 and 10

The nature of the learners

This stage of learning coincides with social, physical and cognitive changes associated with adolescence. Increased cognitive maturity enables learners to work more deductively with language and culture systems, to apply more intentional learning strategies and to reflect productively on their learning. Motivation and engagement with language learning and use are influenced by peer group dynamics, personal interests and values and issues related to self-concept. This is particularly the case for bilingual learners for whom the duality of living between languages and cultural frames impacts continually on the process of identity construction. The role of language is central to this process and is reflected in the degree to which learners define themselves as members of language communities, how they position themselves in relation to peer groups, the choices they make in relation to linguistic and social practices. These processes are fluid and context-responsive and impact on learners’ engagement with both Hindi and English language learning.

Hindi language learning and use

This is a period of language exploration, vocabulary expansion and experimentation with different modes of communication (for example, digital and hypermedia, collaborative performance and group discussions). Greater control of language structures and systems increases confidence and interest in communicating in a wider range of contexts. Learners use Hindi to communicate and interact; to access and exchange information; to express feelings and opinions; to participate in imaginative and creative experiences; and to design, interpret and analyse a wider range of texts and experiences. They use language in different contexts more fluently, with a greater degree of self-correction and repair. They reference the accuracy of their written language against a stronger frame of grammatical and systems knowledge. They demonstrate understanding of language variation and change, and of how intercultural experience, technology, media and globalisation influence language use and forms of communication.

Contexts of interaction

Learners interact with peers, teachers and other Hindi speakers in immediate and local contexts, and with wider Hindi-speaking communities and cultural resources via virtual and online environments. They may participate in community events such as film or cultural festivals, intercultural forums or exchange travel opportunities.

Texts and resources

Learners use an extensive range of texts and materials designed for in-class learning of Hindi, such as textbooks, literary texts, teacher-generated materials and online resources. Learning is enriched by exposure to authentic materials designed for or generated by young Hindi speakers, such as blogs, video clips, discussion forums, television programs or newspaper features. Learners are encouraged to source additional materials to support their own learning and to pursue personal interests in aspects of Hindi language and associated cultures.

Features of Hindi language use

Learners extend and consolidate grammatical knowledge, including the use of compound sentences by using postpositions मैं पहले दिल्ली जाऊँगा और अपना काम पूरा करने के बाद कोलकता पहुँचूँगा। and of a range of tenses to describe events and personal experiences, पिछले वर्ष जैसे हमने होली का त्योहार मनाया था उसी प्रकार इस वर्ष भी हम होली का त्योहार धूमधाम से मनाएंगे।. They make passive and active voice distinctions, राम उर्दू लिख रहा ह, उर्दू लिखी जा रही है, understand the appropriate use of participles and the function and use of case, ने, को, से, के लिए, में, पर. Their vocabulary knowledge expands to include more abstract words and specialised vocabulary drawn from other learning areas or areas of wider personal interest. Textual knowledge and capability are strengthened through maintaining a balance between activities that focus on language forms and structures and communicative tasks and performance. Learners recognise, analyse and construct different types of texts for different purposes and audiences. Task characteristics and conditions at this level are more complex and challenging, involving collaborative as well as independent language planning and performance, and development and strategic use of language and cultural resources. Elements of tasks involve interpreting, creating, evaluating and performing. Working with media resources, fiction and non-fiction texts, performances and research projects allows for exploration of themes of personal and contemporary relevance (for example, global and environmental issues, identity and relationship issues, questions of diversity and inclusivity). Learners investigate texts through more critical analysis, identifying how language choices reflect perspectives and shape meaning, and how they in turn are shaped by context and intention.

Learners at this level understand the relationship between language, culture and identity. They explore in more depth and detail the processes involved in learning and using different languages, recognising the role of cognitive, cultural and personal as well as linguistic resources. They identify how meaning-making and representation in different languages involve interpretation and personal response as well as literal translation and factual reporting. They explore the reciprocal nature of intercultural communication: how moving between different languages and cultural systems impacts on their ways of thinking and behaving; and how successful communication requires flexibility, awareness and openness to alternative ways. They develop the capacity to ‘decentre’ from normative ways of thinking and communicating, to consider their own cultural ways through the eyes of others, and to communicate in interculturally appropriate ways.

Level of support

While learners are increasingly less reliant on the teacher for support during communicative interactions, continued support, provision of rich language input and modelled language is needed to consolidate and sustain the learning of Hindi. The teacher provides both implicit and explicit modelling and scaffolding in relation to meaningful language use in a range of contexts, situations and learning experiences, and explicit instruction and explanation in relation to complex structures, grammatical functions and abstract concepts and vocabulary. Provision of opportunities to discuss, clarify, rehearse and apply their knowledge is critical in consolidating knowledge and skills and developing autonomy. Learners are encouraged to self-monitor, for example, by keeping records of feedback and through peer support and self-review.

The role of English

Learners and teachers use Hindi as the primary medium of interaction in language-oriented and most content-oriented learning experiences. English is used for comparative analysis and for elements of discussion or conceptual analysis which may be better responded to in English than in Hindi. Learners are supported to reflect on the different roles English and Hindi play in their academic work.

The place of the Hindi language and associated cultures in Australia and the world

Hindi is an official language of India and Fiji. It is the most widely spoken language of the Indian subcontinent and is also widely spoken throughout the world in countries that include the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Mauritius, the Gulf countries and Australia. The language and associated cultures have evolved over time due to processes such as colonialism, globalisation and technological change, and to India’s geopolitical and historical position in the world.

The languages of India belong to several language families. Modern Hindi evolved into a distinct language in the New Indo-Aryan Period (from the 11th–12th century). Current understandings of the language are based on the idea of there being a Modern Standard Hindi (मानक हिंदी), based on the Khari Boli dialect spoken in the Delhi area and written in Devanagari script. More broadly, the notion of Hindi also includes a variety of dialect forms that are not covered by this curriculum, such as Braj Bhasa (ब्रज भाषा) and Avadhi (अवधी), which have their own distinctive grammatical standards. Following independence in 1947, the Indian Government instituted a standardisation of grammar, using the Devanagari script to standardise orthography and bring about uniformity in writing. The Constituent Assembly adopted Hindi as the Official Language of the Union on 14 September 1949, now celebrated each year as Hindi Day.

Hindi follows a consistent set of grammatical standards that derive from the same roots as classical Sanskrit. Its vocabulary includes elements not only from Sanskrit but also from Persian, Arabic, Dravidian, other Indian languages and from world languages such as Turkish, Portuguese and English. The lexicon comprises of words taken directly (तत्सम words) and derived from Sanskrit (तद्भव words), as well as other languages. Like all languages, Hindi has multiple registers and freely uses loan words in different registers of speech and writing. Popular everyday registers incorporate many words derived from Persian and Arabic and increasingly incorporate English loan words and expressions.

Hindi is the first language of a large proportion of the population of India and is spoken by more than half the overall population. It is an official language in Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan. By virtue of its role as a lingua franca, Hindi has also developed regional dialects, such as Bambaiya Hindi in Mumbai, Dakhini in parts of Telangana and Bangalori Urdu in Bangalore, Karnataka. Hindi’s role as a lingua franca is evidenced in many forms of popular culture, such as music and film.

Hindi has been an important element of Indian educational systems, both as a first and second language and as a language of instruction. In non-Hindi states, Hindi may be learnt as the third language.

Significant Indian migration to Australia began in the 1980s and continued through the 1990s. The majority of migrants come to Australia through family connections, and the number of skilled migrants continue to grow. According to the Australian Census, in 2011 there were 111,352 Hindi speakers in Australia. Most Indians are multilingual and Hindi is one of the most widely spoken languages in the Australian Indian community.

The place of the Hindi language in Australian education

The community’s commitment to maintain and to express Hindi identity through language, culture and religion is reflected in the strength of Hindi language use in home and community contexts and in well-established after-hours Hindi school programs. Since 2007, there has been an increase in numbers of students learning Hindi, primarily in community language schools and weekend language schools in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia. Some programs are now offered in mainstream schools, including programs that cater for second language learners. Total student numbers are relatively low, but increasing enrolments reflect the growing Indian community in Australia and the Australian Government’s commitment to support linguistic diversity in the community and to develop capabilities in the languages of the region, including Hindi (Australia in the Asian Century white paper 2012).

The nature of Hindi language learning

Hindi language learning in the context of this curriculum reflects the profile of the cohort of learners for whom it is designed. They are background language learners, with different levels of familiarity with the language and associated cultures. For many, this existing capability is more oral than literacy-based, and initial challenges associated with learning relate primarily to literacy development. Modern Standard Hindi is written in the Devanagari script, which is also used for Sanskrit, Marathi and Nepali. It is a phonetic script, which accurately represents the sounds and syllabic structure of Hindi. Study of the script involves learning the 13 sounds classified as vowels in their long and short forms and the 33 consonant sounds, distinguished between unaspirated and aspirated consonants and of retroflex and dental ‘ta’ and ‘da’ sounds. There are five Persian and Arabic consonant sounds used in Hindi and represented in script, as well as two ‘flapped’ forms of retroflex ‘r’ sounds. The syllabic structure of Hindi is represented in Devanagari by a system where vowels following consonants are represented by symbols called matra, and two or more consonants can be combined in a syllable without intervening vowels by conjunct forms of consonants.

Learning the Hindi grammatical system is supported by the regularity of key elements. These include a normative subject-object-verb sentence structure and the use of postpositions that impact on agreements with nouns, pronouns and adjectives. Sociolinguistic aspects of Hindi-speaking communities are reflected in aspects of the grammar, such as the system of three levels of pronouns for ‘you’ and linguistic variations that indicate levels of respect. Hindi is a highly inflected language. All nouns are grammatically masculine or feminine, so adjectives agree with nouns, and verbs show agreement for both number and gender. Actions are distinguished not only by time and manner of performance but also through a distinction between habitual actions and actions completed at a particular time. Learning Hindi involves some complexities at higher levels of study, as learners need to understand complex combinations of verbs and the use of causative verb forms, and to recognise ways in which Hindi draws on Sanskrit, Persian and Arabic in the formation of complex compound words in higher registers of speech.

The Hindi language used in the Australian Curriculum reflects the use of Hindi in contemporary times, engaging learners in the full range of contexts in which the language is presently used in India and Australia.

The diversity of learners of Hindi

The Australian Curriculum: Languages – Hindi is pitched to background language learners, the dominant cohort of learners in the Australian context. Students vary significantly in terms of language and cultural experience, variability being defined in part by home language environments, generational language shifts and parental cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Learners may be first-, second- or third-generation Australians. Some may have established literacy skills in Hindi; others will use Hindi in the home or community alongside other languages; others will extend their use of it to social or friendship groups. Others may have learnt the language in large part from forms of mass media, such as Bollywood productions, music and popular fiction. Some have more receptive than productive language capabilities.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages – HIndi has been developed according to two learning sequences: Foundation – Year 10, and Years 7–10 (Year 7 entry). Teachers will use the curriculum to cater for learners of different backgrounds by making appropriate adjustments to differentiate learning experiences for these students.

The intercultural language learning orientation of the curriculum explores the cultural dimension that shapes and is shaped by languages. Background learners of Hindi already have lived experience of this relationship, ‘living between’ Hindi and English in the Australian context. The curriculum provides opportunities for analysis, explicit focus and reflection on this lived experience and further opportunities for students to participate in intercultural experiences, to extend their ways of perceiving and being in the world, and to understand themselves and others as culturally, bi-culturally and inter-culturally situated.

Socialising

Use formal and informal registers to discuss and compare young people’s interests, behaviours and values across different cultural contexts
[Key concepts: values, responsibility, social worlds, environment; Key processes: discussing, comparing]

Participate in activities that involve interactions, transactions, negotiations and management of different opinions and social/cultural behaviours
[Key concepts: social/cultural behaviours, community, environment; Key processes: planning, inviting, presenting opinions]

Use communicative strategies such as asking open questions and providing elaborated responses to extend discussion, justify views and to reflect on the experience of learning and using Hindi in and out of school
[Key concepts: discussion, language learning, language domains; Key processes: elaborating, responding, designing, identifying]

Informing

Research, interpret and evaluate information presented from different perspectives in relation to youth-related interests, identifying how culture and context affect how information is presented
[Key concepts: perspective, context, culture; Key processes: comparing, analysing, explaining]

Present information related to social and cultural issues of interest to their peer group using different modes and formats to take positions and to capture different perspectives
[Key concepts: environment, lifestyle, inclusivity; Key processes: reviewing, commenting, arguing]

Creating

Explore how expressive and imaginative texts create aesthetic, humorous or emotional effects in ways that reflect cultural influence
[Key concepts: humour, effect, mood, composition; Key processes: analysing, comparing, identifying; Key text types: film, TV shows, poetry, drama]

Create imaginative or expressive texts that draw from and reflect elements of their own tastes and experience
[Key concepts: expression, emotion, experience, culture; Key processes: creating, performing, expressing; Key text types: poetry, song, report]

Translating

Compare translations and interpretations of literary, community and social media texts, including those that mix Hindi and English words, expressions and sentence structures
[Key concepts: code-mixing, code-switching, hybridity, recast; Key processes: analysing, exemplifying, discussing]

Create texts that draw on bilingual resources to explore and reflect the multicultural nature of their personal, school and community experience
[Key concepts: expression, bilingualism, multilingualism, code-mixing; Key processes: composing, reviewing, analysing, reflecting]

Reflecting

Reflect on the nature of bilingual/multilingual communication and experience
[Key concepts: mutual understanding, miscommunication, intercultural exchange, language domains; Key processes: reflecting, monitoring, explaining, analysing]

Reflect on the relationship between language, culture and identity and on how this shapes and reflects ways of communicating and thinking
[Key concepts: identity formation, culture, intercultural experience; Key processes: reflecting, describing, analysing]

Systems of language

Recognise regular and variable elements of spoken Hindi, such as social and regional variations in the pronunciation of diphthongs, or inconsistencies between Hindi pronunciation and spelling and variations from Sanskrit and Perso-Arabic conventions
[Key concepts: language variation, accent, register; Key processes: understanding, identifying, responding]

Investigate, demonstrate and explain how elements of grammar and word formation allow for complex expression of ideas and meaning
[Key concepts: cohesion, voice, compound words; Key processes: identifying, applying understanding]

Analyse and compose different types of texts for specific purposes and audiences that involve different cultural, textual and contextual features
[Key concepts: genre, language features, context; Key processes: comparing, composing, identifying]

Language variation and change

Analyse variations in Hindi language use that relate to social roles, values and contexts and to the nature of the interaction
[Key concepts: variation, adaptation, register, values; Key processes: identifying, explaining, evaluating]

Categorise observed changes to Hindi in domains of use such as education, media, popular culture and intercultural communication
[Key concepts: influence, exchange, language contact; Key processes: investigating, demonstrating, identifying]

Explore how using different languages to make meaning affects how they and their peers think, behave and communicate
[Key concepts: identity formation, intercultural communication; Key processes: reflecting, identifying, explaining]

Role of language and culture

Understand that Hindi language and associated cultures are inter-related, that they shape and are shaped by each other and that their relationship changes over time and across contexts
[Key concepts: interdependence, meaning, change; Key processes: investigating, identifying, classifying]

By the end of Year 10, students initiate, sustain and extend a range of spoken and written formal and informal interactions about young people’s interests, behaviours and values, for example, आप कब वापस आये?, आप के जीवन में सुखी जीवन को व्यतीत करने के क्या उपाय हैं?तुम्हारे विचार में संयुक्त और एकल परिवार में से कौन सी पारिवारिक सरंचना आज के युग में ज़्यादा उपयुक्त है? आप के विचार में आज की युवा पीढ़ी पर किस का प्रभाव पड़ रहा है? तुम अपने दोस्तों के बारे में कुछ बताओ. They participate in activities that involve interactions, transactions, negotiations and managing different opinions and social/cultural behaviours, for example, यह ठीक है, हम सब मिल कर करेंगे, हमें इस में कुछ चित्र भी सम्मिलित करने चाहिये?, क्यों न हम सब …, यही उचित रहेगा। आपको इसमें से एक चुनना है. When interacting, they use culturally appropriate expressions and protocols, for example, धन्यवाद, आप का बहुत बधाई हो ।अपनी पुत्री के शुभ विवाह पर मैं आपको आमंत्रित करना चाहता हूँ । मैं नेहा बेटी को आशीर्वाद देने ज़रूर आऊँगा। यह मेरा सौभाग्य है कि आप ने मुझे इतने महत्त्वपूर्ण अवसर में सम्मिलित होने का अवसर दिया, किन्तु मैं किसी कारणवश नहीं आ पाऊँगा।. They extend discussions and justify their views by asking open-ended questions and providing elaborated responses, for example, इस विषय पर आपके क्या विचार हैं, आप क्या सोचते हैं?, इसका क्या प्रभाव पड़ेगा मुझे विस्तार से बताओ। मेरे कहने का तात्पर्य है कि …, तुम यह कहना चाहते हो कि…, मुझे लगता है कि …. When speaking, they apply pronunciation rules and rhythm, including social and regional variations, to complex sentences. They research, interpret and evaluate information and perspectives on social issues or issues of interest to young people, and identify how culture and context influence the way information is presented. They convey information and perspectives using different text types and modes of presentation. They respond to different expressive and imaginative texts by analysing techniques and cultural influences used for aesthetic, humorous or emotional effects. Students create imaginative texts to express ideas, attitudes and emotions through characters, events and settings relating to bilingual and bicultural experiences. When creating texts, they use a variety of grammatical elements, such as joining rules, for example, आ+ओ=औ, क्+अ+ल= कल, कारक ; case, for example, ने, को, से, के लिए, में, पर; and a range of tenses and participles, for example, आ, ई, ऐ, जाना, वाला, रहा, सकना, पहुँचना, दिल्ली जाने वाले लोग, साइकिल पर लड़की चल रही है to produce complex sentences such as मैं पहले दिल्ली जाऊँगा फिर वहाँ से बम्बई जाऊँगा; कल मैं काम खत्म कर के आपने साथियो के साथ खेलने जाऊँगा. Students compare translations and interpretations of literary, community and social media texts, including those that use both Hindi and English. They create a range of bilingual texts that reflect the nature of their own and each other’s intercultural experience. They describe their experience of being bilingual or multilingual and explain the relationship between language, culture and identity.

Students apply their understanding of complex pronunciation rules and writing conventions, such as variations between spoken and written Hindi and between Sanskrit and Perso-Arabic script. They explain how elements of grammar and word formation allow for the expression of ideas and meaning. They analyse and construct a range of texts for different purpose and audiences and identify cultural, textual and contextual features. They explain how and why variations in Hindi language use relate to roles, relationships and contexts of interaction. Students identify and categorise changes to Hindi and to other languages in different domains of use such as education and popular culture. They explain how being bilingual or multilingual affects the ways they and their peers think, behave and communicate.

Years 9 and 10

The nature of the learners

At this level, students bring to their learning prior knowledge of Indonesian language and culture, and a range of language learning strategies. They are increasingly aware of the world beyond their own and are engaging with youth, social and environmental issues. They require guidance in learning Indonesian; however, they are increasingly independent and capable of analysis and reflection, including in relation to intercultural experiences. They are considering their future pathways and choices, including how Indonesian could be part of these.

Indonesian language learning and use

Learners engage with a range of texts in Indonesian. They participate individually and in groups in tasks and experiences, such as corresponding with Indonesian peers, reviewing a video clip or planning an excursion. They participate in presentations, conversations, narration and interviews, sometimes with preparation and sometimes spontaneously. Learners acquire skills in analysing and translating increasingly complex texts, such as emails, recipes, poems, articles and songs. They use modelled language to write for personal and public purposes, such as journal entries, emails, blogs, scripts, and notes for a speech or debate.

Contexts of interaction

Learners interact with teachers and peers and may have access to members of the Indonesian-speaking community via online technologies. They may also encounter Indonesian in the wider community, such as in the media, film festivals, community events, guest speakers, exchange teachers/assistants or in-country travel.

Texts and resources

Learners use a wide range of texts designed for language learning, such as textbooks, teacher-generated materials and online resources. Their learning is enriched by exposure to a range of authentic texts from the Indonesian-speaking community, such as websites, films, stories, songs, television programs, advertisements and magazines.

Features of Indonesian language use

Learners extend their grammatical knowledge and metalanguage while beginning to explore important features of Indonesian such as register and object-focus construction. They consider connections between language and culture such as jamu, mudik, kewajiban and expressions such as Bhinneka Tunggal Ika, and make comparisons with their own language and culture. They consider language variation, including through exposure to colloquial language such as in teenage magazines and social networking sites.

Level of support

Learners are increasingly aware of and responsible for their own learning, working independently to address their needs such as by accessing technologies to memorise, learn, and expand their language repertoire. They continue to access word lists, graphic organisers, modelled texts, dictionaries and teacher feedback to interpret and create texts. They require explicit instruction of the grammatical system and opportunities to discuss, practise and apply their knowledge. They may keep records of their learning, such as through an e-journal or folio, and use these to reflect on their language learning and intercultural experiences.

The role of English

English provides a basis for linguistic and cultural comparison in learning Indonesian. English is also the medium for expressing experiences, abstract ideas and personal views at a level beyond learners’ range in Indonesian, such as justifying a position on a social issue or exploring linguistic and cultural practices. English may be used in conjunction with Indonesian to conduct research (such as investigating a social issue or cultural practice), in translating, and in communicating bilingually.

The place of the Indonesian language and culture in Australia and in the world

The languages of the Indonesian archipelago have been used in Australia since contact several centuries ago between the peoples of the islands now known as Indonesia and the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples of northern Australia. Trade between these peoples left lasting effects on languages, cultures and communities, such as in Makassar and Arnhem Land, which continue to this day.

Indonesian — or Bahasa Indonesia as it is known by Indonesian speakers — is spoken by approximately 230 million people throughout the Indonesian archipelago. Closely related dialects of the same language, usually called Malay, are used in Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei and southern Thailand. Modern Indonesian and Malay trace their origins to Old Malay, which was used in the Srivijayan empire during the seventh century and later in the powerful trading kingdom of Malacca. As a language of trade, Malay spread throughout the archipelago. The colonial rulers of the Dutch East Indies used Malay for treaties, administration and, from the late nineteenth century onwards, education of the local people.

In 1928, Indonesia’s nascent nationalist movement declared that there would be a single national language as the language of Indonesian unity. Following independence in 1945, Bahasa Indonesia was adopted as the new nation’s official language; it became the medium of instruction and an area of study in all schools. Successive generations of Indonesians have now been educated in Indonesian, and for the majority it is one of a number of languages that are used for communication.

Following the countries’ experience of being allies during World War II, close ties were forged between Indonesia and Australia, and many Indonesians arrived in Australia to study as part of the Colombo Plan, which was designed to educate a professional class in order to advance a stable, democratic Indonesia. A number of Indonesians settled in Australia and formed small communities in various capital cities. These communities currently remain small but are steadily growing, with numbers of tertiary students and families from Indonesia living and studying in Australia.

The ties between Australia and Indonesia continue to develop, with an increasing number of Australians (almost one million in 2012) travelling to Indonesia, for leisure, business and education purposes; numbers of Indonesians visiting Australia are also increasing. Indonesia currently has Australia’s largest overseas diplomatic presence, and Australia is the only country outside of Indonesia to host two specialist Indonesian language and cultural centres, known as Balai Bahasa; these provide Indonesian language study for the Australian community.

The place of the Indonesian language in Australian education

Indonesian has been taught in Australian schools and universities since the 1950s. Today Australia is the largest provider outside of Indonesia itself of Indonesian language education for school-aged children. In fact, Australia is recognised as a world leader in expertise on the Indonesian language and Indonesian language education.

Historically the demand for Indonesian language study in Australian schools has been driven by the Australian Government rather than as a direct response to the language maintenance needs of local speakers of the language. Since its introduction, a number of government policy initiatives have supported the teaching of Indonesian, largely for economic and national security reasons. The introduction of Indonesian language studies in 1955 was in response to the Australian Government’s concerns about regional stability in Asia. During the 1990s, with growing national interest in trade with Asia, the Australian Government introduced the National Asian Languages and Studies in Australian Schools (NALSAS) Strategy, which enabled a major expansion of Indonesian in schools, particularly in the primary sector. Indonesian rapidly became the third most studied foreign language in Australian schools. The NALSAS ended in 2002; however, its aims to encourage young Australians to study one of four targeted Asian languages were reignited through the National Asian Languages and Studies in Schools Program (2008–2012), which renewed an economic and strategic focus on Asia. In recent years, the commitment of the Australian Government to the teaching and learning of Indonesian in schools has continued, as reflected in documents such as the Australia in the Asian Century White Paper (2012) and election policy announcements.

The nature of Indonesian language learning

Indonesian is a standardised language that is the official language of government, education, business and the media. It has been and continues to be shaped (for example, in terms of lexicon, grammatical structures and idiomatic usage) by other languages, most significantly Javanese, Dutch, Arabic and English. Colloquial forms of Indonesian, such as bahasa sehari-hari and bahasa gaul, are used for informal daily interactions.

Indonesian is written using the Roman alphabet, and there is a clear correlation and a degree of consistency between its sound and its written form. This feature generally makes it easy for speakers of English as a first language to predict how to say, read or write Indonesian words. It has a number of sounds that require learning, such as the trilled r, the ch sound of the letter c, the combined vowel sounds ai and au, the distinction between ng and ngg, and the glottal stop k when it is a final syllable.

Indonesian grammar is characterised by a system of affixation where prefixes and suffixes attached to base words form new words belonging to different word classes or with changed grammatical function. The most common among these that are relevant to this curriculum are the noun and verb forms using the prefixes ber-, me-, pe- and ke-, and the suffixes -kan, -i and -an.

There is a significant distinction between oral and written, as well as formal and informal, Indonesian. Written language, for example, follows grammatical rules of affixation, whereas spoken language often drops affixes, and vowels are often reduced to single sounds; for example, the formal hijau often appears informally as ijo. Spoken language is also frequently meshed with local languages and slang forms.

A major feature of Indonesian is its extensive pronoun system, which can be quite simple in its initial stages (for example, saya, Anda, kamu) but becomes increasingly complex, with multiple forms according to situations and contexts of use. In addition, the use of object-focus construction is marked, and it is frequently used in both spoken and written contexts to create distance between the agent and the action.

Language features are strongly embedded in the cultural worldview that underpins and shapes the language. For example, Indonesia is a unified nation within which there are multiple languages; cultural, religious and ethnic groups; and geographical and political regions. The sense of diversity is reflected in the national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika (‘Unity in Diversity’).

The diversity of learners of Indonesian

Most recent figures show that there are approximately 190 000 learners of Indonesian in Australian schools, with the majority in primary schools: F–6 (123 538), 7–10 (64 333) and 11–12 (3713). These figures reflect a relatively strong base for Indonesian in primary schools in particular. The majority of students who study Indonesian at primary school do not continue with the language at secondary school due to factors such as lack of availability of the language or opting to study a different language. Secondary school also represents a new entry point for learners who have not previously studied Indonesian.

The majority of learners of Indonesian in Australian schools are second language learners, with smaller numbers of background learners and first language learners. The Australian Curriculum: Languages for Indonesian is pitched for the majority of the cohort of learners of Indonesian for whom Indonesian is an additional language (referred to in the Australian Curriculum as second language learners). The curriculum has been developed according to two main learning sequences for these learners, Foundation to Year 10 Sequence and Years 7 to 10 (Year 7 Entry) Sequence.

For students learning Indonesian for the first time in a school language program, a key feature of learning the language is understanding the cultural dimension that shapes and is shaped by the language. The curriculum is designed with an intercultural language learning orientation to enable students to participate in intercultural experiences, develop new ways of perceiving and being in the world, and understand themselves in the process.

Socialising

Build relationships by sharing personal opinions, memories and feelings about aspects of childhood, teenage life and aspirations
[Key concepts: youth, memory; Key processes: developing relationships, building connections]

Take responsibility by initiating interactions, solving problems and encouraging others to act
[Key processes: discussing, persuading]

Engage in language learning tasks and experiences through discussion, justifying opinions and reflecting on own language learning
[Key concept: metalanguage; Key processes: justifying, reflecting]

Informing

Investigate, synthesise and evaluate information from a range of perspectives in relation to topical issues and concepts from a range of learning areas
[Key concepts: representation, bias; Key processes: synthesising, evaluating]

Construct and present a range of texts (such as presentations, reports and reviews) related to social issues and topics of interest
[Key concepts: society, environment, media; Key processes: constructing, persuading]

Creating

Engage with a variety of imaginative texts, analysing ideas and values, discussing responses and altering key aspects
[Key concept: values; Key processes: analysing, interpreting, modifying; Key text types: song, poetry, script]

Create a variety of imaginative texts to express ideas, attitudes and values, for a range of audiences
[Key concept: entertainment; Key processes: expressing, adapting; Key text types: drama, poetry, rap, cartoon]

Translating

Translate a range of informative, literary and personal texts, comparing interpretations and explaining how cultural perspectives and concepts have been represented
[Key concept: representation; Key processes: interpreting, comparing, explaining]

Create parallel texts in Indonesian and in English for a range of purposes and audiences, for the wider community
[Key concept: bilinguality; Key processes: adjusting, interpreting, reflecting]

Reflecting

Make choices while using Indonesian, recognising own assumptions and taking responsibility for modifying language for different cultural perspectives
[Key concept: mutual understanding; Key processes: adapting, taking responsibility]

Engage in intercultural experiences, reflecting on how aspects of identity such as ethnicity and religion influence language use and understanding of the experience
[Key concepts: image, identity; Key processes: explaining, reflecting]

Systems of language

Understand pronunciation and intonation conventions, and apply to new words with affixation and a range of complex sentences
[Key concept: fluency; Key processes: prioritising, emphasising]

Analyse complex noun and verb forms, and recognise when and how to use object-focus construction
[Key concept: passive voice, transitivity; Key processes: analysing, manipulating]

Recognise the purpose and features of a range of texts such as persuasive, argumentative and expository texts
[Key concepts: perspective, nuance; Key processes: analysing, correlating]

Language variation and change

Analyse the ways in which Indonesian varies according to spoken and written forms, cultural context and subcultures
[Key concepts: norms, variation; Key processes: analysing, explaining]

Understand the power of language to influence people’s actions, values and beliefs, and appreciate the value of linguistic diversity
[Key concept: power; Key processes: critical analysis, appreciating]

Role of language and culture

Understand that Indonesian language and culture, like all languages and cultures, are interrelated; they shape and are shaped by each other, in a given moment and over time
[Key concept: interdependence; Key processes: investigating, reflecting]

By the end of Year 10, students use Indonesian to communicate with teachers, peers and others in a range of settings and for a range of purposes. They pronounce the sounds ngg and ng, as well as sy (for example, masyarakat) and kh (for example, akhir), and use stress to create fluency in sentences. Students use and respond to open-ended questions such as Berapa lama? Dulu, apakah…, Kapan Anda…? Yang mana? Sudah pernah? and use strategies for initiating, sustaining and concluding oral and written exchanges. They locate, synthesise and evaluate specific details and gist from a range of texts. Students create a range of personal, informative and imaginative texts with some evidence of self-correction strategies. They include time markers such as Pada suatu hari, Keesokan harinya, Kemudian, and conjunctions such as namun, supaya, karena itu, to extend meanings such as in stories, comics, and written and oral reports. Students use yang to expand descriptions and ideas, and incorporate some object-focus construction to vary expression. They express opinions such as using Dari pihak saya, make comparisons such as using dibandingkan dengan, and incorporate emotions and humour. Students describe possibilities using terms such as kalau-kalau and andaikata, and express aspirations such as using Pada masa depan, mudah-mudahan, saya berharap. They translate texts and create bilingual texts, relying on textual features, patterns and grammatical knowledge, and comment on how meaning can vary across languages and cultures, such as the use of idioms and culture-specific terms. Students state reactions to intercultural experiences, and discuss their assumptions, interpretations, and any adjustments to their language use.

Students know that spoken and written Indonesian vary, identifying informal usage such as nggak and aja, exclamations such as kok and dong, and the dropping of prefixes, for example, Dia (mem) beli mobil baru. They show awareness of contractions (for example, ortu, angkot), acronyms such as SMU and hp, and abbreviations such as texting language (for example, jln, skolah and mkn). Students use metalanguage to discuss possessive and noun–adjective word order, and use knowledge of the base word and affixation system to predict meaning and decode new words using dictionaries. They know that language is used to create particular effects and influence others, such as through the use of imperatives and rhetorical devices. Students know that Indonesian is a national language that, for the majority of Indonesians, may be one of a number of known languages. They explain aspects of Indonesian language and culture, including concepts of diversity and nasib, and the importance of language, religion and ethnicity as identity markers. Students make connections between language use and cultural practices, values and assumptions, both in Indonesian and in their own language use.

Years 9 and 10

The nature of the learners

At this level, students bring existing knowledge of Italian language and culture and a range of language learning strategies to their learning. They are increasingly aware of the world beyond their own and are engaging with youth-related and social and environmental issues. They require continued guidance and mentoring, but are increasingly independent in terms of analysis, reflection and monitoring of their language learning and intercultural experiences. They are considering future pathways and options, including the possible role of Italian in these.

Italian language learning and use

This is a period of experimenting with a range of modes of communication (for example, digital and hypermedia, collaborative performance and group discussions). Through their greater control of language structures and growing understanding of the variability of language use, learners become more confident in communicating in a range of contexts. Learners use Italian to interact and communicate; to access, exchange and present information; to express feelings and opinions; to participate in imaginative and creative experiences; and to interpret, analyse and create a range of texts and experiences. They use Italian more fluently and monitor their accuracy and use against their knowledge of grammar and associated systems. They explore intercultural experience more deliberately, for example, noting the influence of technology, media and globalisation on language use and communication.

Contexts of interaction

Learners interact with peers and teachers in their immediate school context and with members of broader Italian communities and resources available through a range of actual and virtual environments.

Texts and resources

Learners extend their familiarity with text types and language functions by balancing attention to language forms with purposeful language use. Sequences of tasks provide opportunities for collaborative planning and performance, resource development, and increased use of different language and cultural resources. Learners strengthen their communication strategies and processes of interpreting, creating, evaluating and performing in relation to a widening range of texts. Media resources, fiction and nonfiction texts, performances and research projects allow for exploration of themes of personal and contemporary relevance (for example, global and environmental issues, identity and relationships, and linguistic and cultural diversity). Learners develop critical analysis skills to investigate texts and to identify how language choices shape perspectives and meaning, and how those choices are in turn shaped by context and intention. They learn to consider different viewpoints and experiences, and analyse their own linguistic and cultural stance, and beliefs and practices that influence communication and intercultural exchange.

Features of Italian language use

The focus of learning Italian shifts to expanding learners’ range and control of the linguistic systems to develop the sophistication of language use. They learn to choose appropriate tenses, to identify and create mood, and to use cohesive devices to create extended texts such as narratives, reports and dialogues. They continue to build a metalanguage, using specific terms to assist understanding and control of grammar and textual conventions (for example, adverbs, conditional, imperative, subjunctive, past tenses, reflexive verbs).

Level of support

Learners are encouraged to develop greater autonomy, to self-monitor, and to adjust language in response to their experience in different contexts. They develop independent skills to access resources such as textbooks, dictionaries and online translators, and to critically evaluate the effectiveness of such resources and their role in learning and communicating. Students continue to benefit from scaffolding and support to access and create increasingly complex texts, such as the provision of visual and contextual cues.

The role of English

Italian is used for interaction within and beyond the classroom, for task accomplishment and for some discussion of ideas in texts. English is used, as and when appropriate, to facilitate comparison, evaluation, reflection and substantive discussion.

The place of the Italian language and culture in Australia and the world

Italian, also known as Standard Italian or italiano standard, is the official language of Italy, the Vatican City, San Marino and parts of Switzerland. It is also an official language of the European Union, and a major community language in countries such as Australia, Luxembourg, the United States, Canada, Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina, and in parts of Africa.

Italian is, and has been for many years, one of the major community languages in Australia.

The place of the Italian language in Australian education

Italian has been taught in Australian schools and universities since the 1930s. Initially it was offered alongside French and German as a ‘language of culture’, and Italian curricula borrowed a strong literary and grammatical emphasis from the precedent of Latin. Italian was an important area of academic study providing access to the rich literary, musical and artistic heritage of Italy, with less attention paid to actual communication or contemporary culture. The distance between this academic approach to Italian learning and the real-world experiences of Italian-speaking communities was considerable.

In addition to the presence of Italian learning in schools, in the 1960s the Italian community established extensive Saturday morning schools to provide Italian language learning for their children. In the 1980s, Italian learning and teaching in Australia increased significantly, especially in primary schools, as a result of policies supporting multiculturalism, in particular the release of the National Policy on Languages (1987), which strongly promoted linguistic and cultural pluralism. In this decade, Italian community organisations established ‘insertion’ programs, hosted within regular day schools, to supplement the weekend and after-hours classes directly run by communities. This coincided with a new emphasis in all language teaching and learning on linking school language learning directly to language use in communities, moving away from traditional grammar- or literature-oriented to more communicatively oriented programs. The focus in these communicative programs was on learning language for use in ‘real’ everyday interactions.

The nature of Italian language learning

Italian belongs to the Romance family of languages and is closely connected to its ‘sibling’ languages of Spanish, Portuguese and French. It also has many commonalities and connections with English, sharing many Latin-derived words and using the same Roman alphabet. The meaning of many Italian words can be instantly recognised through their similarity to English. There are points of difference between Italian and English grammars — for example, variations in word order, tense use, the use of articles, and the gendering in Italian of nouns and adjectives — but overall the Italian language is not linguistically or culturally ‘distant’ for English-speaking learners. Phonologically, Italian is relatively accessible to the English-speaking learner. It is a mostly phonetic language, pronounced generally as it is written, which is especially helpful in the development of listening and speaking skills. There is clear emphasis on all syllables, and intonation follows regular rhythms and patterns.

As Italian is widely spoken in Australia, many opportunities exist to hear and use the language in real-life situations, as well as through the Italian media in Australia and in actual and virtual connections with Italian communities in Italy and beyond.

There are also regional dialects of Italian that are used in local contexts both in Italy and beyond. Some students may bring their experience of the use of regional dialects to the Italian classroom.

The diversity of learners of Italian

Learners of Italian in Australian schools come from a wide range of backgrounds, and include learners for whom this represents a first experience of learning Italian; learners who have existing connections with Italian, most directly as background Italian speakers, as second- or third-generation Italian Australians; and learners who may have experience in a related variety of Italian or another Romance language.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages — Foundation–Year 10 Italian is pitched to second language learners as the dominant group of learners of the Italian language in the Australian context. Teachers may use the Italian F–10 curriculum to cater for learners of different backgrounds by making appropriate adjustments.

Socialising

Initiate, sustain and extend discussions related to aspirations, relationships and contemporary social issues
[Key concepts: relationship, youth, experience; Key processes: discussing, debating, explaining, corresponding]

Contribute ideas, opinions and suggestions in interactions related to shared tasks and problem-solving, managing diverse views
[Key concepts: perspective, diversity, collaboration; Key processes: discussing, organising, planning, negotiating]

Participate in spoken or written transactions to obtain goods and services, including expressing views on quality and making complaints and recommendations
[Key concepts: negotiation, value; Key processes: interacting, persuading, complaining]

Interact in discussions by questioning, making suggestions and expressing opinions, and reflect on experiences of classroom interactions
[Key concepts: interaction, relationship, perspective; Key processes: expressing, questioning, reflecting]

Informing

Analyse, synthesise and evaluate ideas and information from multiple sources on a range of contemporary issues
[Key concepts: perspectives, representation, bias; Key processes: interpreting, evaluating, summarising, connecting, analysing]

Give information in different forms, offering own views in relation to the content and considering the significance for particular audiences
[Key concepts: media, message, opinion; Key processes: designing, evaluating, persuading]

Creating

Read, discuss and review a range of imaginative texts and respond by expressing opinions, explaining the themes, discussing characters, and considering language use and cultural meanings
[Key concepts: imagination, emotion, voice; Key processes: interpreting, comparing; Key text types: short story, biography, film, poem, song]

Create a range of imaginative texts, considering how to represent ideas, characters and events
[Key concepts: emotion, expression, choice, voice, stance; Key processes: composing, reviewing, considering impact; Key text types: song, poem, story, drama]

Translating

Translate a range of texts and discuss how to convey concepts across different linguistic and cultural contexts
[Key concepts: representation, sensitivity, equivalence; Key processes: translating, reviewing, comparing]

Create bilingual texts that reveal aspects of Australian culture for Italian-speaking audiences and vice versa
[Key concepts: cultural positioning, sensitivity; Key processes: translating, captioning]

Reflecting

Reflect on participation in intercultural exchange, taking responsibility for contributing to mutual understanding
[Key concepts: meaning, representation, history/origin, understanding; Key processes: comparing, reflecting]

Investigate and share family and cultural traditions and experiences, considering how these have shaped and continue to shape personal identity
[Key concepts: membership, self/other, identity, multiplicity; Key processes: reflecting, explaining]

Systems of language

Use appropriate Italian pronunciation, stress and intonation in increasingly complex sentences and texts.

Extend grammatical knowledge, including present, past and future tenses, and the conditional and subjunctive mood, to interpret and create meaning in texts.

Analyse and apply linguistic, cultural and textual features of specific text types.

Language variation and change

Investigate how language varies according to context and speakers.

Recognise how Italian language and culture have evolved and how they continue to change over time due to influences such as changing contexts and intercultural contact.

Understand that language use has the power to influence social relationships, beliefs and values.

Role of language and culture

Analyse how linguistic choices construct and reflect ideas, practices and values, and consider how these influence the exchange of meaning.

By the end of Year 10, students use written and spoken Italian to interact with others in a range of contexts and for a range of purposes. They discuss topics such as education, work, the environment and youth issues as well as concepts from a range of learning areas. They recount experiences, and express feelings and opinions, agreement and disagreement, using present, past and future tenses, and linking statements with both coordinating and subordinating conjunctions, for example, Era stanca, così non è uscita. Non mi piace quel romanzo perché è triste! Prima siamo andati al cinema, poi siamo andati a prendere un gelato. They demonstrate grammatical control when using complex sentences. They create a range of connected texts and interact with some degree of personalisation on a variety of subjects related to their own interests. In classroom discussions, they present and communicate personal thoughts and opinions, and account for and sustain a particular point of view, for example, Non c’ è dubbio che … Credo che questi articoli offrano solo un punto di vista. They identify key ideas in different text types dealing with both concrete and abstract topics. They follow the development and relationship of ideas, identifying, for example, identifying sequencing, cause and effect, and consequences. They compare and evaluate ideas across languages and cultures, for example, Secondo me … dal mio punto di vista … per quanto mi riguarda. I giovani italiani sono più interessati nella politica. They discuss future plans and aspirations. Students develop and defend interpretations of texts and diverse points of view, and elaborate, clarify and qualify ideas using supporting evidence and argument. They present real or imaginary events and experiences in narratives, descriptions and recounts. They translate texts and produce bilingual texts, recognising that not all concepts can necessarily be rendered fully in another language.

Students reflect on their experience of learning Italian language and culture. They exchange opinions and responses, noting how these may have changed over time. They identify ways in which writers and speakers make choices when using language, and make connections between language used, cultural concepts expressed and their own experiences or views. They reflect on their own and others’ use of language, the language choices made, and the cultural assumptions or understandings which shape them. They analyse how culture affects communication and the making and interpreting of meaning, and how languages reflect cultures.

Years 9 and 10

The nature of the learners

At this level, students bring to their learning existing knowledge of Japanese language and culture and a range of learning strategies. They are increasingly aware of the world beyond their own and are engaging with youth-related and social and environmental issues. They require continued guidance and mentoring but work increasingly independently to analyse, reflect on and monitor their language learning and intercultural experiences. They are considering future pathways and options, including the possible role of Japanese in these.

Japanese language learning and use

This is a period of language exploration, vocabulary expansion, and experimentation with different modes of communication, for example, digital media, collaborative performance and group discussions. Learners become more confident in communicating in a wider range of contexts through greater control of language structures and vocabulary and increased understanding of the variability of language use. They use Japanese to communicate and interact; to access and exchange information; to express feelings and opinions; to participate in imaginative and creative experiences; and to create, interpret and analyse a wider range of texts and experiences. They sequence and describe events using a range of cohesive devices, and complete communicative tasks that involve planning, performance, collaborative and independent work. They use language more fluently, with a greater degree of self-correction and repair, and use あいづち to facilitate communication. They reference the accuracy of their language use against a stronger frame of grammatical knowledge.

Learners at this level are able to read and write using hiragana, katakana and an increasing number of kanji in all texts. Their writing is more sophisticated, using connectives and conjunctions, and they engage with more complex language structures.

Contexts of interaction

Learners interact with peers, the teacher and other Japanese speakers in immediate and local contexts, and with wider communities and cultural resources via virtual and online environments. They may access additional cultural experiences through events such as school exchanges, festivals, interschool events or cultural performances.

Texts and resources

Learners engage with texts designed for language learning, such as teacher-generated materials and online resources. Learning is enriched by exposure to a range of authentic materials designed for or generated by young Japanese speakers, such as video clips or advertisements. Students take some responsibility for sourcing additional materials to support their own learning.

Features of Japanese language use

Learners use more complex language in oral, written and multimodal forms. They expand their knowledge and control of grammatical elements such as the て form and plain form of verbs, for example, ～ています、～てもいい、～と思おもいます、and ～たり～たり、and conjugation patterns for both verbs and adjectives. Their language production includes elements of interpreting, creating and performing. They engage in analysis of texts such as advertisements and media reports, identifying how language choices reflect perspectives and cultural contexts.

Learners examine the processes involved in using a different language, recognising them as cognitive, cultural and personal as well as linguistic. They explore the reciprocal nature of intercultural communication: how moving between different languages and cultural systems impacts on ways of thinking and behaving; and how successful communication requires flexibility, awareness, and openness to alternative ways. They develop the capacity to ‘decentre’ from normative ways of thinking and communicating, to consider themselves through the eyes of others, and to communicate in interculturally appropriate ways.

Level of support

Support at this level of learning includes provision of rich and varied stimulus materials, continued scaffolding and modelling of language functions and communicative tasks, and explicit instruction and explanation of the grammatical system. Learners are provided with opportunities to discuss, clarify, practise and apply their knowledge. Critical and constructive teacher feedback is combined with peer support and self-review to monitor and evaluate learning outcomes, such as through portfolios, peer review, or digital journals.

The role of English

Japanese is used in more extended and complex ways. English continues to be used for discussion, explanation and analysis. This allows learners to communicate in depth and detail about the experience of learning Japanese and about their thoughts on culture, identity and intercultural experience. English is the language of analysis and critique, supporting discussion of concepts such as stereotypes, difference, diversity and values. It allows for a degree of expression and reflection that is beyond learners’ communicative capabilities in Japanese.

The place of Japanese culture and language in Australia and in the world

Japanese is the official language of Japan, Australia’s northern neighbour in the Asia region. It is also widely used by communities of speakers in Hawaii, Peru and Brazil, and learnt as an additional language by large numbers of students in the Republic of Korea, China, Indonesia and Australia.

Australia has a significant number of Japanese national residents, particularly in the major cities on the eastern seaboard. Japanese culture influences many areas of contemporary Australian society, including the arts, design, technology, fashion, popular culture and cuisine. Japan has been a close strategic and economic partner of Australia’s for more than 50 years, and there is ongoing exchange between the two countries in the areas of education, trade, diplomacy and tourism. Japan is an important nation within Asia and a significant contributor to economic, political and diplomatic relations in the region.

The place of the Japanese language in Australian education

Japanese has been taught in Australia for more than 100 years and is widely taught as a second language in Australian schools. The 1960s saw significant growth in the learning of Japanese, with the establishment of many university programs that produced graduate language teachers who worked alongside native-speaking teachers to establish school-based programs. Increased trade and tourism activity between Japan and Australia in the following decades strengthened interest in Japanese-language learning, and government funding such as the National Asian Languages and Studies in Australian Schools (NALSAS) Strategy (1994-2002) and the National Asian Languages and Studies in Schools Program (NALSSP, 2008-12) contributed to growth and further development in both the primary and secondary sectors. The strong relationship between Australia and Japan has led to many collaborative projects in education and intercultural exchange. The Japanese government and private foundations support the teaching and learning of Japanese in Australia through funding professional learning and resource development centres and through involvement in educational exchanges.

The near-parallel time zones and the geographical proximity of Japan to Australia facilitate access, interaction and communication between the two countries. Student exchanges, community engagement such as sister-school and city relationships, and connections developed through other curriculum areas such as art, design and literature provide opportunities for Australian learners of Japanese to interact with Japanese people and to engage in cultural experience. Increasing numbers of students benefit from exchanges and in-country experience. Technology provides many additional opportunities for interaction and exchange with Japanese-speaking people and cultures.

The nature of Japanese language learning

Japanese is the language used by the Japanese for education, business and media communication. Some dialect variations are used in spoken interactions in different regions of the country.

Japanese is a phonetic language. Pronunciation is predictable, and new words can be pronounced easily upon mastery of hiragana characters.

Japanese uses three scripts for writing: hiragana, the basic phonetic script representing the sounds of Japanese; katakana, the companion phonetic script that is largely used for loan words; and kanji, Chinese characters that represent meaning rather than sound (ideographs). The three scripts are used interdependently. Hiragana is typically the first script learnt, with katakana and kanji first introduced in context then taught systematically, contributing to script knowledge and competence. The many loan words from other languages expressed through katakana reflect the impact of globalisation, technology and popular culture on Japanese language and culture.

Japanese grammar is relatively uniform, with few irregularities, no grammatical gender, and predictable and systematic conjugation of adjectives and verb tenses. There are some differences between Japanese and English elements and patterns, such as the Japanese word order of subject–object–verb. This order forms the basis of sentences that can then be enhanced by the addition of details usually placed before the main items. Pronouns can be omitted and it is not always necessary to articulate the subject of a sentence. Counting and numbering in Japanese involve using classifiers that reflect the nature of the item. Particles are used to mark sentence elements and to indicate the nature of verbs.

An element of the language that may be unfamiliar to some Australian learners is the system of plain and polite forms, which reflect hierarchical relations, social and business-related positioning and issues of respect and status. Plain and polite forms are represented differently in both spoken and written language. Conversational Japanese can be less formal than written Japanese, using shortened sentences, abbreviated plain forms and some omitted particles.

Another feature of Japanese culture reflected in language use is the importance accorded to expressing humility and maintaining harmony. Refusing or deflecting praise of self or family, deferential behaviour and avoidance of direct disagreement or refusal are common characteristics of communicative interactions.

A key aspect of the curriculum involves understanding the cultural dimension that shapes and is shaped by Japanese language. The curriculum is designed with an intercultural language learning orientation to enable students to participate meaningfully in intercultural experiences, to develop new ways of seeing and being in the world, and to understand more about themselves in the process.

The diversity of learners of Japanese

While learners of Japanese in Australian schools vary in terms of language backgrounds, cultural experience and prior learning experience, they are predominantly second language learners. Classes may include students with a background in Japanese or in a script-based Asian language. Some students will have had exposure to Japanese language and culture through social interactions, travel or exchange experiences.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages – Japanese is pitched for the majority of the cohort of learners of Japanese for whom Japanese is an additional language (referred to in the Australian Curriculum as second language learners). The curriculum has been developed according to two main learning sequences for these learners, Foundation to Year 10 Sequence and Years 7 to 10 (Year 7 Entry) Sequence.

Teachers will use the curriculum to cater for the range of different learner backgrounds described above by making appropriate adjustments to personalise learning experiences for these students.

Socialising

Engage in discussions and comparisons of young people’s interests, activities and lifestyles
[Key concepts: perspectives, relationships, youth culture, social practices; Key processes: discussing, describing, reciprocating]

Collaborate, plan and manage activities, events or experiences, such as hosting a Japanese class or visitor, going to a restaurant, or preparing for a real or virtual event, trip or excursion
[Key concepts: collaboration, intercultural experience, active learning; Key processes: planning, cooperating, rehearsing, mediating]

Develop language to reflect on the experience of learning and using Japanese
[Key concepts: metalanguage, reflection, review; Key processes: expressing, analysing, comparing, evaluating]

Informing

Analyse ideas presented in a range of texts, identifying context, purpose and intended audience
[Key concepts: register, standpoint, representation, themes; Key processes: scanning, summarising, comparing, analysing]

Present different types of information for specific purposes and contexts using appropriate formats and styles of presentation
[Key concepts: social media, promotional material; Key processes: composing, selecting, editing, presenting]

Creating

Identify how expressive and imaginative texts create humorous, emotional or aesthetic effects that reflect cultural values or experiences
[Key concepts: humour, emotion, effects, culture; Key processes: interpreting, evaluating, analysing, comparing]

Create a variety of imaginative texts to express ideas, attitudes and values that suggest intercultural comparisons
[Key concepts: imagination, stimulus, context, values; Key processes: adapting, creating, interpreting, expressing, engaging, performing]

Translating

Compare translations of different types of texts, including versions obtained from digital translators, considering differences in interpretation and how language reflects elements of culture
[Key concepts: meaning, interpretation, cultural expression; Key processes: translating, comparing, analysing, reviewing]

Create bilingual texts in Japanese and English for a range of communicative and informative purposes, incorporating oral, written and visual elements
[Key concepts: bilingual learning resources, bicultural contexts; Key processes: classifying, translating, glossing, referencing, mediating]

Reflecting

Monitor language choices when using Japanese and take responsibility for modifying language and behaviours to assist intercultural communication
[Key concepts: reciprocity, intercultural experience; Key processes: reflecting, evaluating, exemplifying, comparing]

Reflect on cultural differences between Japanese- and English-language communication styles and on how these affect intercultural interactions
[Key concepts: identity, culture, communication; Key processes: comparing, analysing, evaluating, profiling]

Systems of language

Understand intonation and phrasing patterns in both informal and formal speech, and recognise multiple readings of familiar kanji in different compounds
[Key concepts: phrasing, intonation, variation, meaning; Key processes: identifying, discriminating]

Use knowledge of familiar kanji to predict meaning of unknown words
[Key concepts: script conventions, kanji readings, radicals; Key processes: recognising, discriminating, writing, decoding]

Understand how sophistication in expression can be achieved by the use of a variety of verb and adjective conjugations
[Key concepts: metalanguage, plain form, て form conjugation, word functions; Key processes: identifying, defining, classifying, sequencing]

Identify, analyse and compare textual features and conventions that characterise social and informative media in Japanese and English
[Key concepts: textual conventions, language features, cohesion; Key processes: comparing, analysing, identifying]

Language variation and change

Analyse variations in language use that reflect different social and cultural contexts, purposes and relationships
[Key concepts: 内うち/外そと, respect, social relations, variation, register; Key processes: selecting, applying, comparing, evaluating]

Investigate changes to Japanese and other languages and cultures, identifying factors such as education, media and new technologies, popular culture and intercultural exchange
[Key concepts: globalisation, exchange, influence, contemporary culture, language revival/reclamation; Key processes: mapping, classifying, analysing, reviewing]

Role of language and culture

Understand that the Japanese language carries embedded cultural information and assumptions that can be difficult for speakers of other languages to interpret
[Key concepts: intercultural exchange, meaning, reciprocity, values; Key processes: analysing, questioning, discussing]

By the end of Year 10, students use Japanese to share information, experiences and views related to their social worlds using rehearsed and spontaneous language. They use correct pronunciation, including that of borrowed words, and adopt appropriate rhythm and phrasing to allow for others’ use of あいづち. They ask and respond to questions, elaborating responses by providing reasons or explanations, using a range of adjectives and adverbs such as ぜんぜん or かなり. Students begin to use plain form to communicate with their peers. They use kanji to read and write verbs, for example, 思います、来ます、聞きます、食べます、飲のみます, nouns, for example, 新聞、会話かいわ, 外国語がいこくご and adjectives, for example, 早い、上手な、下手へたな. Students extract, analyse and evaluate information from extended spoken, written and multimodal texts, such as films, blogs, brochures, itineraries and journals. They predict the meaning of unfamiliar words and expressions from context, grammatical knowledge and familiar kanji, and by drawing on their knowledge of textual characteristics and features. Students produce informative and imaginative texts, appropriate to audience and purpose, using the て form and plain form to express preferences, permission and prohibition and to describe past experiences. They build cohesion and complexity in written texts by using conjunctions, such as ですから、けれども, and indicate frequency by using a range of intensifiers, for example, よく、たいてい. Students discriminate appropriately in their use of kanji, hiragana and katakana. They translate and interpret texts, explaining words and expressions that are difficult to translate or that have embedded cultural meanings, such as にゅうがくしき、おぼん、サラリーマン. They discuss elements of interaction in Japanese, such as the importance and use of あいづち in meaning-making. They make connections and comparisons between their own and others’ culturally shaped perspectives, reflecting on the influence of perspectives on intercultural communication.

Students understand the functions of the different scripts within text, for example, hiragana for grammatical elements; katakana for borrowed words and some onomatopoeia; and kanji for nouns, verbs, adjectives and some adverbs. They distinguish, for example, between おくりがな and ふりがな, and understand the concept of おん/くん readings. They identify multiple readings of kanji, and begin to use kanji radicals as a tool for indicating meaning. Students use the て form and plain form verbs as a basis for grammar conjugations. They use metalanguage to describe and compare language features and rules of sentence construction. Students choose です/ます or plain form based on age, relationship, familiarity and context. They identify hybrid terms that combine Japanese and English, such as コピペ、オーガナイズする、ダンスする. They explain how key Japanese cultural values such as community, 内うち/外そと and humility, いいえ、まだです。, and consideration of others are reflected in language and behaviours.

Years 9 and 10

The nature of the learners

At this level, students bring existing knowledge of Korean language and culture and a range of learning strategies to their learning. They are increasingly aware of the world beyond their own and are engaging with youth-related and social and environmental issues. They need continued guidance and mentoring, but are increasingly independent in terms of analysis, reflection and monitoring of their language learning and intercultural experiences. They are considering future pathways and options, including how Korean could be part of these.

Korean language learning and use

Learners engage with more complex language with greater control of language. They use a range of forms and structures, and richer and more sophisticated vocabulary to perform tasks individually and collaboratively, to access and exchange information on broader topics and abstract concepts, and to create, interpret and analyse a wider range of texts. They express feelings, emotions and opinions more precisely using a variety of expressive and descriptive language in imaginative and creative experiences. They are more confident in communicating in Korean in familiar and some unfamiliar contexts with a greater understanding of the variability of language use, making appropriate language choices and adjustments. With an increasing command of Hangeul, learners interact with members of the virtual community of Korean speakers and learners worldwide, sharing their understanding of Korean culture and language as well as of their own. They understand that language varies and changes, and engage in and reflect on intercultural experiences.

Contexts of interaction

Learners interact with the teacher and peers, and may have access to members of Korean-speaking communities via online technologies including some computer-mediated communication tools. They may also encounter Korean in the wider community, such as in the media, film or cultural festivals, community events, guest speakers, exchange teachers/assistants or in-country travel.

Texts and resources

Learners use an extensive range of texts designed for Korean language learning such as textbooks, teacher-generated materials and online resources. Learning is enriched by exposure to authentic materials designed for or generated by young Korean speakers, such as video clips, songs, stories, articles, magazine features, television programs or advertisements. Authentic Korean community resources provide opportunities to extend learners’ experience of learning the language and culture. Texts may include additional materials that students have sourced on their own to support their learning or to pursue personal interests in Korean language and culture.

Features of Korean language use

Learners extend their grammatical knowledge to a range of particles, conjunctive suffixes (clausal connectives) and complex phrasal and sentential structures. Their vocabulary range expands to abstract words and some specialised vocabulary drawn from other learning areas or areas of interest in the wider context. With an increasing knowledge and control of language structures and features and vocabulary, including those with honorific elements, students recognise, analyse and construct different types of texts for different audiences and purposes. They interpret, create, evaluate and perform in individual and collaborative tasks that involve planning, problem-solving, decision-making, or informing or entertaining others. They make inferences from their knowledge of the Korean language and culture to understand unfamiliar content and consolidate their awareness of language variation and its connection with identity. They move between Korean and English, translating, discussing, analysing and comparing the languages using a metalanguage, applying metalinguistic knowledge and taking intercultural perspectives as a user of two (or more) languages. Learners have an increasing understanding of language learning as a cultural, social and linguistic process. They examine their own and others’ communicative practices and understand the concept of mutual responsibility for intercultural exchanges.

Level of support

While learners are increasingly less reliant on the teacher for support during communicative interactions, continued support and provision of rich language input from the teacher is needed for their sustained learning of Korean. The teacher provides implicit and sometimes explicit modelling and scaffolding in meaningful contexts. Learners need explicit instruction and explanation to understand highly complex structures and functions of grammatical items and meanings of highly abstract and/or culture-specific vocabulary. Provision of opportunities to discuss, clarify, practise and apply their knowledge is critical in consolidating their acquired knowledge and skills and in enhancing learner autonomy. Students may self-monitor their learning by keeping record of critical and constructive teacher feedback, peer support and self-review (for example, through portfolios, peer reviews, e–journaling, online discussion forums). They continue to access word lists, graphic organisers and modelled texts, and the teacher gives precise guidance for using dictionaries, particularly with dictionary forms of verbs.

The role of English

Learners and teachers use Korean as the primary medium of interaction in language-oriented and most content-oriented tasks. English is used for substantive discussion, explanation and analysis requiring students to deal with a conceptual demand which is too far beyond their level of competence in Korean, for example, analysing highly abstract and complex concepts embedded in linguistic structures/cultural practices.

The place of the Korean culture and language in Australia and the world

Korean is the language of one of Australia’s important neighbours in the Asian region and is spoken by around 80 million people in the Korean Peninsula and worldwide. With the rapidly growing popularity of and interest in Korean culture across the world, the number of people learning Korean is also growing fast in many countries in Asia, Oceania, the North and South Americas, Europe and Africa. In Australia, Korean is spoken by more than 150 000 people, and the presence of the Korean culture and language, together with Korean brands of high-technology products, is increasingly evident in various sectors of society.

Australia and the Republic of Korea have established and reinforced people-to-people relationships through cultural and educational exchanges for more than half a century. The first recorded contact between Australia and Korea took place in the late 19th century through Australian missionaries visiting the Korean Peninsula. In the early 20th century, there was a period when contact between the two countries was not possible due to the Japanese colonial rule over Korea. With the end of World War II and Australia’s participation in the United Nations Commissions on Korea (UNCOK) in 1947 and in the Korean War (1950–1953), the two countries formed a strong bond and have established a strong trade partnership. With an increasing awareness of the need to expand the partnership to other sectors, awareness of the need to better understand the country and culture, and to learn the language, has also increased as opportunities for exchanges and collaborations are expanding to education, science and technology, culture, media, sports, leisure, tourism and community activities. Visitors from Korea, including primary-aged students on study trips, may provide young Australian learners of Korean with opportunities for rich cultural and linguistic experiences.

The place of the Korean language in Australian education

There have been a number of government policy initiatives that have supported the teaching of Korean in Australian education since it was introduced to Australian schools in the early 1990s. During the 1990s, with growing national interest in trade with Asia, the Australian Government introduced the National Asian Languages and Studies in Australian Schools (NALSAS) Strategy. Later, the aims of NALSAS were reignited through the National Asian Languages and Studies in Schools Program, which ran from the late 2000s until the early 2010s with a renewed economic and strategic focus on Asia, encouraging young Australians to study Korean, one of four targeted Asian languages. In recent years, the commitment of the Australian Government to the teaching and learning of Korean in schools has continued as is evident in documents such as South Korea: Country Strategy (Australian Government, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2013).

With the support of the Australian Government for learning and teaching Korean in Australian schools and growing interest in Korean culture and opportunities to encounter Koreans and Korean products, there is an increasing demand for Korean language education from the community. Among young learners in Australia, there has been a significant increase in the popularity of Korean culture, including traditional and youth/pop culture, as seen in frequent performances of traditional Korean dance and music and in the surge of popularity of K-pop (Korean pop). There is also an increasing awareness of possible career opportunities for those who have attained a high level of proficiency in the Korean language and a sound intercultural understanding.

The nature of Korean language learning

The Korean language has its own alphabetic writing system called Hangeul. Hangeul consists of 24 basic letters, comprising 14 basic consonants and 10 basic vowels. Learning Hangeul involves learning how to combine consonants and vowels to produce a syllable in Korean, which corresponds to a syllabic block in its written form. As students learn Hangeul, they also learn about its philosophical, scientific, linguistic and cultural underpinnings, where the three elements of vowel letters (•, ㅡ, ㅣ) symbolise the three respective elements in oriental cosmology – heaven, earth and human – and consonant letters symbolise the shapes of the speech organs: lips, teeth, tongue and throat. Students’ learning is enhanced by understanding the importance of Hangeul’s creator, King Sejong the Great, who, in the 15th century, believed that his people’s wellbeing was directly related to literacy and could be enhanced through the creation of a writing system that would represent their spoken language.

Korean is an agglutinative language. Students learn how to agglutinate various particles or suffixes to nominals or verb stems to express a range of grammatical, semantic or pragmatic information. The word order of Korean is subject–object–verb (SOV); however, learners also learn that word order in Korean is flexible as long as the verb-final rule is observed, and that contextually understood elements may be left unexpressed in Korean discourse. Honorifics are one of the important features of Korean. Students learn how to use Korean to express their thoughts with cultural bearing through the systematic use of honorifics and through non-verbal behaviour that corresponds to the chosen honorific. The Korean language easily incorporates words from other languages. Students learn about Korean culture as well as how to use the language in culturally appropriate ways.

The diversity of learners of Korean

Australian students have multiple, diverse and changing needs that are shaped by different individual, personal and learning histories as well as personal, cultural and language backgrounds. Learners of Korean in Australia can be identified in three major groups: second language learners (learners who are introduced to learning Korean at school); background language learners (learners who may use Korean at home, not necessarily exclusively, and have knowledge of Korean language and culture to varying degrees); and first language learners (learners who have had their primary socialisation as well as initial literacy development in Korean, and use Korean at home as their first language).

The Australian Curriculum: Languages, Foundation to Year 10 for Korean is pitched to second language learners. The curriculum has been developed according to two main learning sequences for these learners: Foundation – Year 10, and Years 7–10. Teachers will use the Korean F–10 curriculum to cater for learners of different backgrounds by making appropriate adjustments to differentiate learning experiences for these students.

For students learning Korean for the first time in a school language program, a key component of their learning is to understand the cultural dimension that shapes and is shaped by the language. The curriculum is designed with an intercultural language learning orientation to enable students to participate meaningfully in intercultural experiences, to develop new ways of seeing and being in the world and to understand more about themselves in the process.

Understanding

Systems of language

Apply features and rules of Korean pronunciation and Hangeul to understanding and producing a range of texts for different audiences and purposes
[Key concepts: phonological rules, fluency, accuracy; Key processes: applying,analysing, synthesising]

Understand how grammatical elements, such as particles and suffixes, impact on higher levels of grammar, such as tense, mood,honorification, speech level and formality, and on meaning-making from the phrasal level to that of the entire text
[Key concepts: complex structures, modality, irregularity, topicality; Key processes: applying rules, analysing,manipulating]

Understand and use vocabulary that conveys abstract ideas and establishes register and style for specific audiences
[Key concepts: vocabulary choice,register, style; Key processes: predicting, applying, inferring]

Analyse and compose different types of texts in spoken and written modes for different purposes such as information exchange, social and cultural interaction or sharing imaginative experiences, using appropriate linguistic, textual and cultural elements
[Key concepts: style, register, perspectives; Key processes: analysing,correlating, composing]

Language variation and change

Examine variations and expectations reflected in Korean language that relate to roles, relationships and contexts of interactions, considering how and why these differ from interactions in English or in other languages represented in the classroom
[Key concepts: cultural expectations, intercultural literacy; Key processes: examining, reflecting, explaining]

Reflect on the dynamic and ecological nature of language that interacts with constantly changing environments such as contact with different languages and cultures and changing sociocultural circumstances in local and global contexts, identifying and illustrating examples from Korean language forms and uses
[Key concepts: exchange, change, variation, integration; Key processes: comparing, analysing,reflecting]

Explore how language shapes thoughts and world views and mobilises action
[Key concepts: world views, thoughts, conceptualisation, perspectives; Key processes: analysing, reflecting, explaining]

Role of language and culture

Understand that language and culture are interrelated and reflect on how they shape and are shaped by each other
[Key concepts: intercultural understanding, reciprocity, intercultural literacy; Key processes: critiquing,evaluating, reflecting]

Systems of language

Use appropriate pronunciation rules and writing conventions to produce and read short texts in Korean that include some less familiar language
[Key concepts: system, rules, patterns; Key processes: inferring, analysing, applying rules]

Understand and use grammatical forms and structures such as suffixes for tense, honorifics and polite style marking, and auxiliary verbs and particles, using appropriate metalanguage to identify or explain forms, structures and parts of speech
[Key concepts: parts of speech, grammatical structures, syntactic relationship, honorifics; Key processes: applying rules, categorising, explaining]

Understand and use some words and expressions that reflect Korean culture, noticing those that need additional explanation to convey their original meaning in translation
[Key concepts: culture-specific words, idioms, expressiveness; Key processes: predicting, applying, selecting]

Examine grammatical structures and features and vocabulary in a range of personal, informative and imaginative texts in spoken and written modes, noticing how these contribute to textual cohesion, and compose short texts for different purposes considering cultural aspects involved
[Key concepts:coherence, cohesion, text conventions; Key processes: describing, analysing, experimenting]

Language variation and change

Explore how language use varies according to context, purpose and audience and to the mode of delivery and the relationship between participants
[Key concepts: context, negotiation,interrelationship; Key processes: comparing, connecting, reflecting]

Explore and reflect on the impact of social, cultural and intercultural changes such as globalisation and new technologies on Korean as a language of local, international and virtual communication and on their own individual use of language
[Key concepts: globalisation, influence, digital media; Key processes:researching, explaining, reflecting]

Explore the power and influence of language in local and global contexts
[Key concepts: social power, context; Key processes:analysing, explaining, recounting, reflecting]

Role of language and culture

Analyse how beliefs and value systems are reflected in language use and communicative behaviours, and reflect on how what is considered normal in communication varies across cultures
[Key concepts: norms, beliefs, value system; Key processes: analysing, interpreting, reflecting]

By the end of Year 10, students use written and spoken Korean to communicate with teachers, peers and others in a range of settings and for a range of purposes. They use Korean to access and exchange information on a broad range of social, cultural and environmental issues of interest to young people. They initiate, sustain and extend spoken and written exchanges in interactions and transactions by asking and responding to open-ended questions, eliciting opinions (for example, 어떻게 생각해요?; 어디에서 …–(으)면 좋을까요?), requesting elaboration (for example, 왜 …을/를 좋아해요?; 어떻게 그렇게 되었어요?) and providing their own opinions (for example, 저는 민수가 맞다고 생각해요; 저는 4번이라고 생각했어요) and information when requested. They use non-verbal communication strategies such as facial expressions, gestures, pausing or pitching, and give verbal feedback expressing empathy, down-toning, acknowledging or expressing indirect disagreement using reflective language (such as 그렇지요?; 좋았겠어요; 아마; 글쎄요; 아, 그렇군요; 아닌 것 같은데요; 정말 그럴까요?). They make suggestions in relation to topics of conversation (for example, 여러분도 한번 한국에 가 보세요) and consider options, using a range of suffixes and complex/idiomatic structures indicating the future in verb phrases (such as –겠–, –(으)ㄹ래요, –(으)ㄹ 계획이에요, –(으)ㄹ 거예요, –(으)면 좋을까요?). They make decisions comparing options using …보다 더 … and providing reasons for decisions (for example, 기차가 버스보다 더 편리하니까 기차로 가요). Students locate and evaluate information from a range of sources, and analyse, interpret and integrate information from diverse perspectives. They create informative and imaginative texts, using a range of case markers, including honorific forms, particles and verb phrases in complex structures (such as –지 않다/못하다, –(으)ㄹ 뻔하다, –(으)ㄴ/는/(으)ㄹ것 같다, –러 가다), and describing two related ideas or events in different relationships by connecting two clauses in a sentence (for example, 비가 올 것 같으니까 우산을 가져 가세요; 저기에서 노래하는 사람이 누구예요?). They use a range of abstract words, selecting vocabulary suitable for the target audience, purpose and context. They maintain the cohesiveness of the text by keeping consistency in terms of speech level and style and honorific elements, and by using cohesive devices such as conjunctors (such as –(으)니까, –다가, –(으)ㄴ/는데, –(으)면서), conjunctive adverbs (such as 하지만, 그러므로, 그러니까) and ellipsis. Students translate and create bilingual texts across Korean and English, providing and comparing alternative versions, identifying ways to interpret and convey embedded meanings in culture-specific terms or expressions that are language-specific. They compare their intercultural experiences, referencing their current and past senses of identity, views and attitudes in relation to their ways of using language.

Students describe how spoken and written Korean vary and are modified according to contexts, audiences and purposes. They exemplify such adjustments (for example, changes to pitch or speed of speech, use of contractions or 반말, choice of vocabulary, and level of politeness and formality), explaining possible reasons for particular adjustments. They describe how languages change and borrow from, build on and blend with each other, giving examples in relation to Korean and languages such as English, Chinese and Japanese that share social, cultural and historical relationships. They explain how language influences ways of thinking, views of the world and human relationships. Students use metalanguage to explain aspects of the Korean language such as tense, suffix, honorification, adverb, modification, speech level (for example, 반말, 높임말), and politeness. They assess their own language use and cultural practices from multicultural perspectives and the meaning and impact of multiculturalism from various perspectives.

Years 9 and 10

The nature of the learners

At this level, students bring to their learning existing knowledge of the Spanish language and the cultures of Spanish speakers and a range of learning strategies. They are increasingly aware of the world beyond their own and are engaging with youth-related and social and environmental issues. They require continued guidance and mentoring but work increasingly independently to analyse, reflect on and monitor their language learning and intercultural experiences. They are considering future pathways and options, including the possible role of Spanish in these.

Spanish language learning and use

This is a period of language exploration, vocabulary expansion and experimentation with different modes of communication (for example, digital media, collaborative performance and group discussions). Learners become more confident in communicating in a wider range of contexts through greater control of language structures and increased understanding of the variability of language use. They use Spanish to communicate and interact; to access and exchange information; to express feelings and opinions; to participate in imaginative and creative experiences; and to create, interpret and analyse a wider range of texts and experiences. They use Spanish more fluently, with a greater degree of self-correction and repair. They reference the accuracy of their language use against a stronger frame of grammatical knowledge. They demonstrate understanding of language variation and change and of how intercultural experience, technology, media and globalisation influence communication.

Contexts of interaction

Learners interact with peers, teachers and other Spanish speakers in immediate and local contexts, and with wider communities and cultural resources via virtual and online environments. They may access additional experience of the Spanish language and the cultures of the Spanish speaking world through interschool events, or community events such as film festivals or cultural performances.

Texts and resources

Learners use texts designed for language learning, such as textbooks, teacher-generated materials and online resources. Learning is enriched by exposure to a range of authentic materials designed for or generated by young Spanish speakers in a variety of Spanish-speaking regions, such as video clips, magazine features, television programs or advertisements. Students take some responsibility for sourcing additional materials to support their own learning.

Features of Spanish language use

Learners use more complex language in spoken and written forms. They adjust tone, expression and intonation to shade meaning and to convey emotions. They expand their knowledge and control of grammatical elements such as verb tenses (imperfecto, futuro simple, condicional) and direct and indirect object pronouns. They use a range of cohesive devices to sequence and describe events in detail and to complete communicative tasks that involve planning, performance, and collaborative and independent work. Their language production includes elements of interpreting, creating, evaluating and performing. They engage in critical analysis of texts such as advertisements and media reports, identifying how language choices reflect perspectives and cultural contexts.

Learners examine the processes involved in using a different language, recognising them as cognitive, cultural and personal as well as linguistic. They explore the reciprocal nature of intercultural communication: how moving between different languages and cultural systems impacts on ways of thinking and behaving; and how successful communication requires flexibility, awareness and openness to alternative ways. They develop the capacity to ‘decentre’ from normative ways of thinking and communicating, to consider themselves through the eyes of others, and to communicate in interculturally appropriate ways.

Level of support

Support at this level of learning includes provision of rich and varied stimulus materials, continued scaffolding and modelling of language functions and communicative tasks, and explicit instruction and explanation of the grammatical system. Learners are provided with opportunities to discuss, clarify, practise and apply their knowledge. Critical and constructive teacher feedback combines with peer support and self-review to monitor and evaluate learning outcomes (for example, portfolios, peer review, digital journals).

The role of English

Spanish is used in more extended and elaborated ways. English continues to be used when needed for substantive discussion, explanation and analysis. This allows learners to talk in depth and detail about the experience of learning Spanish and about their thoughts on culture, identity and intercultural experience, supporting discussion of concepts such as ‘stereotypes’, ‘difference’, ‘diversity’ and ‘values’. It allows for a degree of expression and reflection that is beyond learners’ communicative capabilities in Spanish.

The place of the Spanish language and the cultures of Spanish speakers in Australia and in the world

Spanish is a global language spoken by approximately 500 million people across the world. Spanish evolved from Latin on the Iberian Peninsula in around the ninth century, and travelled from Spain to the Caribbean and to North, Central and South America as a result of the expeditions of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The language has been enriched by many other languages, including Arabic, Basque, Greek, French, English and the indigenous languages of the Americas.

Today, most Spanish-speaking countries are plurilingual, and the indigenous languages of these countries – such as the Guaraní language of Paraguay, and Quechua, Aymara and more than 30 other languages in Bolivia – are co-official with Spanish. Spain also has other official languages besides Spanish, including Catalan, Galician and Basque/Euskera.

The migration of Spanish speakers to Australia began in the nineteenth century and increased during the twentieth century with people migrating from countries such as Spain, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Peru and Guatemala. Patterns of migration of Spanish speakers to Australia during the twentieth century were influenced by a variety of factors, including economic and political circumstances. Migration from Spanish-speaking countries such as Colombia, Venezuela, Mexico and Ecuador continues in the twenty-first century and is currently influenced by interest in tertiary education and employment opportunities presented by trade agreements in sectors such as mining, agriculture, defence, technology and education. Due to this steady history of migration from Spanish-speaking countries to Australia, Spanish remains an important community language throughout Australia.

The place of the Spanish language in Australian education

The universities were the first Australian educational institutions to undertake the formal teaching of Spanish. By the end of the 1960s, Spanish language departments had been established in a number of Australian universities.

Spanish language programs are currently available in all states and territories at all levels of schooling. Programs are offered across all educational sectors, including community language schools and other after-hours providers. Many university and school Spanish programs provide opportunities for Australian students to enrich their language learning through travel to Spanish-speaking countries.

The work of Spanish-speaking artists, musicians, writers and scientists is studied in a range of learning areas across the curriculum in Australian schools. These works inform the selection of key types of texts and learning experiences offered to students through the Spanish language curriculum. These cross-curricular links make language learning more meaningful for students.

The nature of Spanish language learning

As Spanish belongs to the family of Romance languages, derived from Latin, it has many lexical and structural connections with English as well as other European languages. As a result of this relationship, knowledge of Spanish can facilitate the learning of other languages from the Romance family, such as Catalan, Galician, Italian, French, Portuguese and Romanian.

Distinctive characteristics and features of the Spanish language guide the teaching and learning of the language in schools. The close correspondence between the written and spoken forms of Spanish assists with spelling and the development of literacy in general as well as with speaking and listening skills.

Although the Spanish alphabet and writing system are similar to those of English, there are some differences in these features that present challenges for Australian students. These features include the use of accents, inverted question and exclamation marks at the beginning of questions and exclamations, and the distinctive letter ñ.

Word order in Spanish differs from English, most noticeably in the positioning of adjectives after nouns. Subject pronouns are often omitted in Spanish where they would be required in English. It is not necessary to invert the subject and the verb to form a question, or to use auxiliary verbs in negative and interrogative constructions, hence intonation and stress are important for making meaning.

The diversity of learners of Spanish

The majority of learners of Spanish in Australia are studying it as a second or additional language. There are also a number of background learners of Spanish, who have varying degrees of prior knowledge of the language. Most students from Spanish-speaking backgrounds are second or third generation, and in many cases several languages are spoken in their home environment. Despite having some exposure to Spanish at home, students may have varying levels of language and literacy skills. The Australian Curriculum: Languages – Spanish Foundation to Year 10 has been developed for second language learners but is flexible enough that teachers can adapt it to suit the varying needs of the full range of other learners in the classroom.

Socialising

Discuss and compare young people’s interests, behaviours and values across cultural contexts
[Key concepts: social change, youth culture, communication, memory; Key processes: discussing, responding, building connections]

Engage in shared activities such as planning and organising events by contributing ideas, opinions and suggestions and managing diverse views
[Key concepts: perspectives, change; Key processes: planning, debating, persuading]

Engage in class discussions and debates, justifying opinions, evaluating perspectives and reflecting on own language learning
[Key concepts: perspectives, standpoint, representation; Key processes: debating, persuading, justifying, explaining]

Informing

Analyse, synthesise and evaluate ideas and information from multiple sources on a range of local and global issues
[Key concepts: environment, standpoint, representation; Key processes: analysing, synthesising, evaluating perspectives]

Convey information on a range of issues using different modes of presentation to suit different audiences
[Key concepts: perspective, society, environment; Key processes: constructing, reporting, persuading]

Creating

Engage with and review creative texts, identifying and explaining cultural attitudes and key messages
[Key concepts: relationship, perspective, values; Key processes: analysing, evaluating, reviewing]

Produce a variety of imaginative texts to express ideas, attitudes and values for a range of audiences
[Key concepts: values, emotion, entertainment; Key processes: expressing, adapting, considering impact]

Translating

Translate both Spanish and English texts, and discuss cultural and other dimensions of the process
[Key concepts: culture, text, context; Key processes: evaluating, translating, comparing]

Create bilingual texts that interpret aspects of Australian language and culture for Spanish-speaking audiences
[Key concept: bilinguality; Key processes: adjusting, interpreting, reflecting]

Reflecting

Participate in intercultural experiences, reflecting on own ways of communicating and considering how intercultural communication involves shared responsibility for meaning-making
[Key concept: mutual understanding; Key processes: making connections, questioning assumptions, adapting, adjusting]

Explore and compare cultural traditions in both the Spanish-speaking world and their own cultural contexts, considering how these influence identity
[Key concepts: identity, culture, worldview; Key processes: comparing, explaining]

Systems of language

Recognise that pronunciation, intonation, rhythm and pace assist in fluency and in meaning-making in spoken interactions
[Key concepts: expression, fluency, accents; Key processes: discriminating, emphasising]

Apply complex grammatical rules such as those relating to reflexive verbs and subjunctive and conditional moods, and use cohesive devices to link and extend ideas in own spoken and written texts
[Key concepts: grammatical analysis, metalanguage; Key processes: analysing, manipulating]

Discuss the purpose and features of a range of texts, such as informative, argumentative or persuasive texts, using appropriate metalanguage to identify and describe characteristics
[Key concepts: textual features, stylistic devices, perspective; Key processes: analysing, correlating]

Language variation and change

Analyse how language use in both spoken and written modes varies according to the geographical location and cultural profile of Spanish-speaking communities
[Key concepts: variation, diversity; Key processes: analysing language, comparing, explaining]

Understand and analyse the power of language to influence people, actions, values and beliefs
[Key concepts: power, influence; Key processes: reflecting, connecting, critical analysis]

Investigate the variety of languages used in different communities in the Spanish-speaking world, for example, Mapudungun, Basque/Euskera and Náhuatl
[Key concepts: diversity, status, recognition; Key processes: researching, analysing, discussing]

Role of language and culture

Understand and describe ways in which language and culture are interrelated and influence each other.
[Key concepts: culture, language, meaning, interdependence; Key processes: discussing, reflecting, comparing]

By the end of Year 10, students use written and spoken Spanish to initiate and sustain interactions with teachers, peers and others in a range of settings and for a range of purposes. They use language spontaneously to offer opinions on social issues and to discuss young people’s interests, behaviours and values across cultural contexts. They justify opinions such as No creo que sea la mejor manera de resolver…, Estoy en contra de esa idea porque…, evaluate perspectives and reflect on their own language learning. They collaboratively plan and organise events and manage diverse views by using the subjunctive mood to express emotion and doubt and give negative commands (for example; Siento que no puedas ir a La Habana, Es posible que compre un reproductor MP3, No pienso que sea … Siento que estés enfermo … ¡No grites tanto!), the imperative mood for commands (for example, Hazlo bien, Toma el jugo/zumo, Escríbeme, Llámala …), and passive voice when appropriate (for example, se cometieron errores). Students locate, analyse, synthesise and evaluate ideas and information on local and global issues from a range of perspectives and sources. They present information using different modes of presentation to suit different audiences and to achieve different purposes. They select appropriate nouns and adjectives to describe values and attitudes identified in different imaginative texts, such as Ese joven no sirve para nada / Es un joven valiente, Ellos son ilegales / Ellos son los refugiados. They produce a variety of imaginative texts that reflect ideas, attitudes or values associated with Spanish-speaking communities, applying knowledge of the imperfect (for example, Cuando era joven vivíamos en Bogotá, Vivía en Granada cuando Pedro se graduó) and conditional tenses (for example, Valdría la pena ver los murales de Diego Rivera). They use grammatical elements such as reflexive verbs (for example, acostarse, cepillarse) and relative pronouns (for example, el amigo que visitamos), and use cohesive devices (for example, sin embargo, por eso, pero) to link and extend ideas, and time markers such as al día siguiente, después de…, más tarde… for sequencing. When translating Spanish, students identify cultural perspectives and explain how they have been represented. They create bilingual texts that reflect aspects of language and culture for both English-speaking and Spanish-speaking audiences. They contribute to mutual understanding when participating in intercultural experiences, and explain how family and cultural traditions shape people’s sense of identity.

Students identify connections between the variety of other languages used in different communities in the Spanish-speaking world and explain some of the variations in Spanish, such as the pronunciation of the letters c, s and z, and different ways of pronouncing ll and y. They use appropriate metalanguage to explain grammatical features such as word order, tenses and subjunctive mood and the purpose and features of different texts, such as informative and persuasive texts. Students analyse the influence of language on peoples’ actions, values and beliefs, including its capacity to include and exclude. They explain ways in which language and culture are interrelated and influence each other.

Years 9 and 10

The nature of the learners

This stage of learning coincides with social, physical and cognitive changes associated with adolescence. Increased cognitive maturity enables learners to work more deductively with language and culture systems, to apply more intentional learning strategies and to reflect productively on their learning. Motivation and engagement with language learning and use are influenced by peer–group dynamics, personal interests and values, and issues related to self-concept. This is particularly the case for bilingual learners for whom the duality of living between languages and cultural frames impacts continually on the process of identity construction. The role of language is central to this process and is reflected in the degree to which learners define themselves as members of language communities, how they position themselves in relation to peer groups, choices they make in relation to linguistic and social practices. These processes are fluid and context-responsive and impact on learners’ engagement with both Turkish and English language learning.

Turkish language learning and use

This is a period of language exploration, vocabulary expansion and experimentation with different modes of communication, for example, digital and hypermedia, collaborative performance and group discussions. Greater control of language structures and systems increases confidence and interest in communicating in a wider range of contexts. Learners use Turkish to communicate and interact; to access and exchange information; to express feelings and opinions; to participate in imaginative and creative experiences; and to design, interpret and analyse a wider range of texts and experiences. They use language in different contexts more fluently, with a greater degree of self-correction and repair. They reference the accuracy of their written language against a stronger frame of grammatical and systems knowledge. They demonstrate understanding of language variation and change, and of how intercultural experience, technology, media and globalisation influence language use and forms of communication.

Contexts of interaction

Learners interact with peers, teachers and other Turkish speakers in immediate and local contexts, and with wider Turkish-speaking communities and cultural resources via virtual and online environments. They may participate in community events, such as film or cultural festivals, intercultural forums or exchange travel opportunities.

Texts and resources

Learners use an extensive range of texts and materials designed for in-class learning of Turkish, such as textbooks, literary texts, teacher-generated materials and online resources. Learning is enriched by exposure to authentic materials designed for or generated by young Turkish speakers, such as blogs, video clips, discussion forums, television programs or newspaper features. Learners are encouraged to source additional materials to support their own learning, share them with peers, and pursue personal interests in aspects of Turkish language and associated cultures.

Features of Turkish language use

Learners extend their grammatical knowledge to a range of forms and functions that give them control of more complex elements of text construction and word formation. They analyse functions of affixation through the identification of adverbial, adjectival and noun phrases, for example, by recognising how some adverbs derived from verbs and adverbial phrases modify time and manner of action, for example, the adverb -erek/-arak, as in Koşarak geldi, gülerek gitti; adding the suffix –ce/-ca to the adjective as in dikkatlice and hızlıca. They analyse the use of optative endings, -(y)eyim, -(y)elim, -(y)in and -sin in first person, for example, alayım, alalım, alın;and alsın in different tenses and in sentences to express a request; and distinguish between the use of the progressive form -(i)yor and the simple present -(i)r and past tense -d(i) of verbs that describe actions and the evidential past perfect tense -miş, as in, gelmiş and gitmiş and uyuyormuş. Their vocabulary knowledge expands to include more abstract words and specialised vocabulary drawn from other learning areas or areas of wider personal interest. Textual knowledge and capability are strengthened through maintaining a balance between activities which focus on language forms and structures, and communicative learning experiences and performance. Learners recognise, analyse and construct different types of texts for different purposes and audiences. Task characteristics and conditions at this level are more complex and challenging, involving collaborative as well as independent language planning and performance, and development and strategic use of language and cultural resources. Elements of learning experiences involve interpreting, creating, evaluating and performing. Text types such as media resources, fiction and nonfiction texts, performances and research projects allow for exploration of themes of personal and contemporary relevance, for example, global and environmental issues, identity and relationship issues, questions of diversity and inclusivity. Learners investigate texts through more critical analysis, identifying how language choices reflect perspectives and shape meaning, and how they in turn are shaped by context and intention.

Learners at this level understand the relationship between language, culture and identity. They explore in more depth and detail the processes involved in learning and using different languages, recognising them as cognitive, cultural and personal as well as linguistic resources. They identify how meaning-making and representation in different languages involve interpretation and personal response as well as literal translation and factual reporting. They explore the reciprocal nature of intercultural communication: how moving between different languages and cultural systems impacts on their ways of thinking and behaving; and how successful communication requires flexibility, awareness and openness to alternative ways. They develop a capacity to ‘decentre’ from normative ways of thinking and communicating, to consider their own cultural ways through the eyes of others, and to communicate in interculturally appropriate ways.

Level of support

While learners are increasingly less reliant on the teacher for support during communicative interactions, continued support, such as provision of rich language input and modelled language, is needed to consolidate and sustain language development. The teacher provides both implicit and explicit modelling and scaffolding in relation to meaningful language use in a range of contexts, situations and learning experiences, and explicit instruction and explanation in relation to complex structures, grammatical functions and abstract concepts and vocabulary. Provision of opportunities to discuss, clarify, rehearse and apply their knowledge is critical in consolidating knowledge and skills and developing autonomy. Learners are encouraged to self-monitor, for example, by keeping records of feedback, through peer support and self-review.

The role of English

Learners and teachers use Turkish as the primary medium of interaction in language-oriented and content-oriented tasks. English is sometimes used for comparative analysis and for discussion or explanation that involve concepts more easily articulated in English. Learners are supported to reflect on the different roles English and Turkish play in their academic work and in their conceptual development

The place of the Turkish language and culture in Australia and the world

Turkish is the official language of the Republic of Turkey and one of the official languages of Cyprus.

It originated many centuries ago in the Northern Siberian Altay Mountain Range. Nomadic people brought the language with them as they expanded out to Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan and a number of other countries. Today, Turkish is the most commonly spoken Turkic language worldwide.

The first written records of the Turkish language date back about 1,300 years, and originate from central Asia. Turkish is also called Istanbul Turkish or Anatolian Turkish. As the language was developing, it was influenced by the language spoken during the Ottoman Empire. Eventually, in 1928, the Ottoman alphabet was replaced by the Latin alphabet by the founder of the Republic of Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. The new alphabet made reading and writing of the language easier and resulted in significant increases in literacy levels in Turkey. The Turkish Language Association, founded in 1932, worked to reform the language and to officially standardise it among Turkish speakers. In the process, many loan words from other languages were removed and many old Turkish words that had not been used for centuries were reintroduced.

Turkish Cypriot migration to Australia began in the late 1940s, the first migrants coming for work opportunities. Numbers grew from 1963 onwards as a result of the conflict in Cyprus. Larger scale migration from Turkey began once a bilateral agreement was signed in 1967 between the Turkish and Australian governments. Migration from Turkey continued in the 1980s, involving family reunion programs and an increase in general skilled and educational migration. While more than half of the migrant population settled in Victoria, mostly in Melbourne, significant numbers also settled in Sydney, New South Wales (NSW), and smaller numbers in other states and territories. Turkish is a strong community language in many major Australian cities and in regional centres, such as Mildura and Shepparton in Victoria.

According to the Australian Census, in 2011 there were 59,624 Turkish speakers in Australia. The Turkish-speaking community in Australia includes people from Turkey, Cyprus, Bulgaria, Western Thrace and smaller groups from other Turkic backgrounds.

The campaign of the Gallipoli Peninsula during World War I laid the foundations of what later developed as strong, steadily growing Australian–Turkish connections. Tens of thousands of Australians, including Turkish Australians, visit Gallipoli each year to pay tribute and to gain understanding of shared Australian–Turkish history. The two countries enjoy strong contemporary connections, characterised by productive and steadily developing economic and bilateral trade relationships, cultural exchange and consular cooperation.

The place of the Turkish language in Australian education

Turkish has been taught in Australian schools since the 1950s. Originally offered by community-based organisations, it became part of the mainstream school curriculum in Victoria and NSW in the early 1970s.

Enrolments in Turkish language classes in some government and non-government schools and in community language school programs in Victoria and NSW have increased in recent years. Some students from non-Turkish backgrounds now learn Turkish as a second language in school, and community-based organisations such as the Council of Adult Education offer Turkish language classes for adult learners wishing to develop their language skills in particular domains of Turkish language use.

The nature of Turkish language learning

Turkish is a phonetic language with 29 letters derived from the Latin alphabet. Each letter represents only one sound. The decoding of Turkish words is assisted by a familiarity with English or other languages that use the Latin alphabet. Learning Turkish is also aided by the regularity of the grammatical system and the agglutinated nature of the language (that is, the addition of suffixes to root words regulates grammatical elements and generates new words and meanings, for example, the root word gör (see) becomes görmek (to see) and gördüm (I saw)).

While Turkish uses the same Latin alphabet as English, the pronunciation of some letters differs significantly. The use of diacritics on some letters represents an extra complexity. While the grammatical system is comparatively regular, there are differences between it and languages spoken by some learners, for example, the lack of gender forms and articles such as ‘the’ in English. The Turkish word order is subject + object + verb; however, this may change in spoken language or when there is variation in required emphasis or meaning, as when the word that is emphasised in terms of meaning is placed closest to the verb.

The diversity of learners of Turkish

The Australian Curriculum: Languages, Foundation – Year 10 (F–10) for Turkish is pitched to background learners, the dominant cohort of learners in the current Australian context for whom Turkish is a background but not necessarily the first language. Some students speak Turkish at home and have strong connections to mainland Turkey, Cyprus and Turkic countries; others are second- or third-generation Turkish Australians, with varying degrees of knowledge of Turkish language and culture; others are members of bicultural families, who may use some Turkish at home.

Small numbers of students from other language backgrounds may be studying Turkish in schools. For such learners, Turkish will represent similar challenges to those which frame their experience of learning English as their language of schooling. Teachers will use the Turkish F–10 curriculum to cater for learners of different backgrounds by making appropriate adjustments to differentiate learning experiences for these students.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages – Turkish has been developed according to two learning sequences: Foundation – Year 10, and Years 7–10 (Year 7 entry). Teachers will use the curriculum to cater for learners of different backgrounds by making appropriate adjustments to differentiate learning experiences for these students.

The intercultural language learning orientation of the curriculum explores the cultural dimension that shapes and is shaped by languages. Background language learners of Turkish already have lived experience of this relationship, ‘living between’ Turkish and English in the Australian context. The curriculum gives students opportunities for analysis, explicit focus and reflection on this lived experience and further opportunities to participate in intercultural experiences, to extend their ways of perceiving and being in the world, and to understand themselves as culturally, biculturally and interculturally situated.

Socialising

Exchange ideas, opinions and aspirations , comparing views, preferences and responses to different experiences, noting commonalities and differences
[Key concepts: values, environment, social worlds, aspirations; Key processes: discussing, comparing]

Participate in activities that involve taking action, transacting, problem-solving, negotiating and managing different opinions and perspectives
[Key concepts: action, awareness, problem-solving; Key processes: planning, designing, transacting, discussing]

Ask and respond to questions that invite reflection, analysis and comparison of experiences, for example, as learners and users of Turkish in and out of school
[Key concepts: meaning, analysis, language learning; Key processes: elaborating, responding, comparing, recording, evaluating]

Informing

Research, synthesise and evaluate information on a selected subject from a range of perspectives and sources, identifying how culture and context affect how information is presented
[Key concepts: perspective, context, culture; Key processes: comparing, analysing, explaining]

Present information related to social and cultural issues or events of interest to their peer group, using different modes and formats to capture different perspectives
[Key concepts: lifestyle, text production, perspective; Key processes: composing, summarising, presenting]

Creating

Analyse how expressive and imaginative texts create aesthetic, humorous or emotional effects in ways that reflect cultural influence
[Key concepts: humour, effect, mood, composition; Key processes: analysing, comparing, narrating; Key text types: film, poetry, drama, carpets]

Create a range of imaginative or expressive texts that reflect elements of their experience of living in Turkish- and English-speaking communities, and using language for humorous or emotive effect
[Key concepts: expression, emotion, experience, culture; Key processes: creating, performing, expressing; Key text types: drama, poem, song, speech]

Translating

Compare translations of familiar Turkish texts, such as community notices or literary texts, considering factors that may have influenced the translation from one language to the other
[Key concepts: translation, meaning, expression; Key processes: translating, analysing, comparing, evaluating]

Create glossaries and annotations in English that provide explanations for cultural and contextual references in contemporary and traditional Turkish texts
[Key concepts: expression, culture, religion, lifestyle; Key processes: identifying, explaining, researching, interpreting]

Reflecting

Reflect on their language choices and styles of communicating when interacting with speakers of different languages, identifying strategies that assist in intercultural communication
[Key concepts: intercultural communication/miscommunication, responsibility, repair; Key processes: comparing, reflecting, monitoring, explaining]

Reflect on the relationship between language, culture and identity and on how this shapes and reflects ways of thinking and communicating
[Key concepts: identity formation, culture, intercultural experience; Key processes: reflecting, describing, analysing]

Systems of language

Understand regular and irregular elements of spoken and written Turkish, and use elements such as affixation and compound patterns to produce complex phrases and elaborated texts and to participate in extended interactions
[Key concepts: stress, register, emphasis, pace, mode; Key processes: understanding, experimenting, identifying]

Analyse how grammatical elements, such as rules of agglutination and cohesive devices, impact on more complex elements of text construction and word formation, such as mood, register and tense variation
[Key concepts: agglutination, affixation, tense, action; Key processes: identifying, analysing, explaining]

Know how to construct different types of texts to suit different contexts, purposes and audiences, incorporating appropriate cultural and contextual elements
[Key concepts: genre, context, audience; Key processes: composing, identifying, analysing]

Language variation and change

Understand that variations in the use of spoken and written Turkish relate to social roles, communities and contexts, and consider how and why these differ from similar variations in the use of Australian English
[Key concepts: variation, culture, register, values; Key processes: identifying, explaining, distinguishing]

Understand that Turkish and other languages and cultures continuously change over time, identifying influences such as education, changing values, new technologies and intercultural exchange
[Key concepts: change, time, context, attitude; Key processes: investigating, exemplifying, identifying, analysing]

Role of language and culture

Explore how the Turkish language and associated cultures, like all languages and cultures, are interrelated, how they shape and are shaped by each other in ways that change over time
[Key concepts: interdependence, influence, change; Key processes: tracking, analysing, comparing, discussing]

By the end of Year 10, students use spoken and written Turkish to initiate, sustain and extend interactions with peers, teachers and others in a range of contexts and for a range of purposes. They exchange ideas, opinions and aspirations, for example, Türkçe öğretmeni olmak istiyorum. They use analytical and comparative language when comparing views, preferences and responses to different experiences, for example, Doktorluğu tercih ederim çünkü doktor olunca Türkçe konuşmak çok yararlı olacak. They use spontaneous language to participate in activities that involve taking action, transacting, problem-solving, negotiating and managing different opinions and perspectives, for example, Bazıları böyle düşünse de ben tamamen farklı düşünüyorum. They extend discussions and justify their views by asking questions that invite reflection, analysis and comparison of experience, for example, okuduğunuz metindeki bu düşünce izlediğiniz filmde nasıl işlenmiştir? Hangi dilde duygularını daha rahat ifade ediyorsun and by providing elaborated responses, for example, Türkçe’yi daha farklı ortamlarda rahatça kullanabiliyorum. They speak fluently, pausing where appropriate, and use stress in extended sentences to enhance communication. Students gather, synthesise and evaluate information from different perspectives and sources, and present information, views and perspectives on topics of interest in different modes and formats selected to suit purpose and audience. Students respond to different expressive and imaginative texts by analysing techniques and cultural influences used for aesthetic, humorous or emotional effects. They create a range of imaginative texts that reflect their bilingual and bicultural experiences and use language for effect. When creating texts, students use a variety of tenses, such as simple present, past, progressive, simple past perfect, for example, geldi, gitti, and evidential past perfect tense, for example, gelmiş, gitmiş, uyuyormuş. They use cohesive devices to sequence and connect actions and ideas in texts, and apply the rules of agglutination to adverbs, adjectives and nouns. They compare translations of Turkish texts and identify factors that may have influenced the translation. They create explanations in English of cultural and contextual references embedded in traditional and contemporary Turkish texts. They explain the relationship between language, culture and identity, question cultural assumptions, and modify language and behaviours in intercultural interactions as appropriate.

Students identify regular and irregular elements of spoken and written Turkish and apply their understanding to produce complex phrases and elaborated texts, and to participate in extended interactions. They analyse how grammatical elements such as agglutination and cohesive devices impact on mood, register and tense variation. They know how to construct a range of spoken, written and multimodal texts to suit context, purpose and audience, incorporating elements appropriate to culture and context. They analyse how spoken and written Turkish varies according to social roles, communities and contexts, explaining why they adjust their vocabulary and level of politeness and formality in intercultural interactions, for example, özür dilerim/affınıza sığınırım, naber(nbr)/nasılsın. Students explain why languages and culture change over time, including the impact of education, new technologies, changing values and intercultural exchange. They explain the reciprocal and evolving nature of the relationship between language and culture.

Years 9 and 10

The nature of the learners

At this level, students bring to their learning existing knowledge of Vietnamese language and culture and a range of strategies. They are increasingly aware of the world beyond their own and are engaging with youth-related and social and environmental issues. They require continued guidance and mentoring but work increasingly independently to analyse, reflect on and monitor their language learning and intercultural experiences. They are considering future pathways and options, including the possible role of Vietnamese in these.

Vietnamese language learning and use

Learners are immersed in the Vietnamese language, initiating and engaging in discussions and debates on topics of interest, and responding to enquiries. They reflect on the cultural and linguistic appropriateness of their language use in interactions and make necessary adjustments. They learn to interpret information and evaluate values and practices from diverse perspectives and sources. They make connections with their own experiences to elaborate on and justify their point of view on topical issues or to explain how values and attitudes have remained the same or changed over time. Learners produce a range of texts, such as informative, narrative, descriptive, procedural or persuasive texts, for a variety of contexts, audiences and purposes. Through their engagement with diverse texts and resources, students explore how cultural practices, concepts, values and beliefs are embedded in texts and how language choices shape perspectives and meaning. They develop techniques and intercultural awareness in order to translate and mediate between languages and cultures.

Contexts of interaction

Learners interact with peers, the teacher and other Vietnamese speakers both locally and globally through a variety of modes of communication, including digital, online, collaborative performances and group discussions. The context of interaction extends beyond the classroom and involves investigating and reporting on issues in the local community and transacting with local Vietnamese speakers to negotiate services. These experiences provide learners with a sense of connectedness and purpose as Vietnamese and English speakers.

Texts and resources

Learners use diverse resources, such as Vietnamese newspapers, magazines, documentaries, films, stories, songs, television programs, entertainment performances, artworks and web pages, as references to assist them in discussing and researching Vietnamese language and culture. They explore a variety of text types, such as poems, articles, formal letters, interviews and speeches, and engage with a range of informative, historical or literary perspectives, views and debates.

Extracts from contemporary Vietnamese poems as well as short stories and diverse forms of Vietnamese artistic expression such as tranh dân gian Đông Hồ, tranh sơn dầu; dân ca, nhạc trẻ; cải lương, kịch, phim, are introduced to give learners an insight into Vietnamese folk, traditional and contemporary literature, arts and entertainment. Learners use a range of dictionaries and translation methods to support comprehension, build vocabulary and elaborate on ideas.

Features of Vietnamese language use

Learners explore Sino-Vietnamese words (phụ huynh, phi trường, hàng hải, giang sơn) and stylistic devices, such as repetition (đi nhanh, nói nhanh, ăn nhanh), similes (hiền như Bụt), personification (mưa nhớ thương ai) and rhetorical questions (Ba đồng một mớ trầu cay, Sao anh chẳng hỏi những ngày còn không?), to identify and convey enhanced meaning in communication. They use compound sentence structures, for example, Nếu trời mưa (thì) chúng tôi sẽ không đi chơi. Trời mưa khi chúng tôi đang đi chơi and conjunctions (càng … càng, vừa … vừa, chẳng những … mà còn), for a variety of communicative purposes in spoken and written texts. They examine the impact of generation, gender, media, technology and globalisation on Vietnamese language and culture to develop their awareness of language variation and evolution. They analyse and explain how and why language use varies according to cultural contexts, relationships and purposes, and develop the language of reflection in Vietnamese.

Level of support

Support at this level of learning includes rich and varied stimulus materials, continued scaffolding and modelling of language functions and communicative tasks, and explicit instruction and explanation of the grammatical system, with opportunities for learners to discuss, clarify, practise and apply their knowledge. Critical and constructive teacher feedback combines with peer support and self-review to monitor and evaluate learning outcomes, for example, through portfolios, peer review and e-journalling.

The role of English

Vietnamese is predominantly used as the main medium for classroom interaction and content delivery. English is used only when necessary to allow for further explanation and discussion of more demanding concepts, particularly when making connections with other languages and cultures. Learners explore cultural diversity and gain a greater appreciation of their Vietnamese cultural heritage. They view their bilingualism and biculturalism as an asset for themselves and for Australia.

The place of the Vietnamese language and culture in Australia and in the world

Vietnamese is the official language of Vietnam. It is spoken by approximately 90 million people in Vietnam and approximately four million Vietnamese people living in other countries around the world, with the majority residing in the United States, Cambodia, France, Taiwan and Australia.

Vietnamese language and culture have evolved and continue to change over time due to processes such as globalisation and technological change and in responsParagraphe to Vietnam’s geopolitical and historical position in the world. The lasting influence of historical contact and exchanges between Vietnamese, Chinese and French people can be seen in the Vietnamese lexicon, for example, Sino-Vietnamese words (từ Hán Việt) such as phụ nữ, phi trường and hàng hải, and Vietnamese words of French origin such as cà rốt, xếp and ga lăng. Chinese allusions (điển tích) are also common in classical Vietnamese literature. Westernisation, globalisation and technological advances have also enriched the Vietnamese vocabulary, with new words such as Tây hóa, lai căng, tự do cá nhân, nhật ký điện tử, mạng lưới toàn cầu and điện thoại thông minh.

In Australia the place of Vietnamese culture and language is defined by patterns of migration. The first major wave of Vietnamese migration to Australia began in the mid-1970s with the arrival of large numbers of refugees following the fall of Saigon at the end of the Vietnam War. In more recent years, the vast majority of Vietnamese migrants have come to Australia through family connections, and there are growing numbers of skilled migrants. The migrants’ need to maintain Vietnamese identity through language, culture and religion contributed to the Vietnamese language flourishing in the home and being delivered in after-hours Vietnamese school settings.

Vietnamese language and culture represent an important part of the linguistic and cultural diversity of Australia. Vietnamese people have made and continue to make a significant contribution to the development and enrichment of Australian society in areas such as commerce, agriculture, industry, health, the arts, education, hospitality, tourism and international relations.

The place of the Vietnamese language in Australian education

Since the 1990s, the place of the Vietnamese language in Australian education has benefited from expanding diplomatic and trade relationships between Australia and its Asian neighbours. Since that time, there has been an increase in the number of students studying Vietnamese in primary and secondary schools and in after-hours Vietnamese language schools run by Vietnamese community organisations. The dramatic increase of students studying Vietnamese reflects the growing Vietnamese community in Australia, as well as government policies supporting multiculturalism.

The nature of Vietnamese language learning

The modern standard version of Vietnamese is Tiếng Việt. Vietnamese is a tonal language written in the Roman alphabet with additional diacritics for tones. The tone system is a distinctive characteristic of Vietnamese phonology; for example, a word may be repeated with any one of six tones to indicate six different meanings (ma (ghost), má (mother), mà (but/that), mã (horse), mả (grave) and mạ (rice seedling)). Consequently, pronunciation and intonation play a key role in the learning of Vietnamese, with a clear correlation between sound and writing systems.

The importance of intercultural awareness in language learning is illustrated by distinctive features of Vietnamese such as the complex system of personal pronouns, which is vital to building and defining relationships, with use of the personal pronouns em, anh, chị, cô, ông, bà, con and cháu contingent on the relationships between speakers in contexts of communication. The frequent use of idioms, proverbs, similes and metaphors in both daily interactions and literature is another key feature of Vietnamese language use.

The diversity of learners of Vietnamese

The Australian Curriculum: Languages – Vietnamese is pitched to background language learners, the dominant cohort of learners of Vietnamese in the Australian context.

The background language learner pathway has been developed for students who have been exposed o Vietnamese language and culture, and who may engage in active but predominantly receptive use of Vietnamese at home. The range of learners within the Vietnamese background language learner pathway is diverse, defined for the most part by different waves of migration. Learners may be first-, second- or third-generation Australians, and their use of Vietnamese may extend beyond the home to involvement in community organisations and events and to everyday interactions with Vietnamese friends. Other learners may have been born in Vietnam, where they may have completed some education.

A key dimension of the Australian Curriculum: Languages – Vietnamese involves understanding the interrelationship between language and culture. The curriculum is designed with an intercultural language-learning orientation to enable students to participate meaningfully in language and cultural experiences, to develop new ways of seeing and being in the world from a bilingual perspective, and to understand more about themselves in the process.

Socialising

Initiate, sustain and extend interactions with peers and adults, exploring own and peers’ perspectives on youth culture, future aspirations and social experiences
[Key concepts: perspective, youth culture, issues; Key processes: discussing, justifying, commenting]

Participate in a range of collaborative activities that involve transactions and require negotiation and management of different opinions or behaviours
[Key concepts: negotiation, perspective; Key processes: managing, engaging]

Extend classroom interactions by offering, elaborating on, justifying and eliciting opinions and ideas
[Key concepts: exchange, discussion; Key processes: justifying, stating views, sharing opinions]

Informing

Locate, synthesise, interpret and evaluate information and opinions from different perspectives relating to social issues and other areas of interest to teenagers
[Key concepts: perspective, interconnection, representation; Key processes: synthesising, evaluating, interpreting]

Convey information, ideas and viewpoints from different perspectives, selecting appropriate modes of presentation to achieve specific purposes for particular audiences in relevant contexts
[Key concepts: perspective, representation, purpose; Key processes: connecting, presenting, persuading, evaluating]

Creating

Explore a range of traditional and contemporary forms of art, literature and entertainment, by analysing values, purposes and language techniques, and discussing issues and themes
[Key concepts: imagination, morality, style; Key processes: exploring, relating, analysing]

Create a range of imaginative texts in different formats, including multimodal and digital formats, for a range of audiences, contexts and purposes
[Key concepts: morality, emotion, journey; Key processes: experimenting, connecting, expressing]

Translating

Translate and interpret texts for different audiences and contexts, and explore how cultural concepts, values and beliefs are represented differently in Vietnamese and English
[Key concepts: sensitivity, empathy; Key processes: analysing, interpreting]

Create bilingual texts in multimodal forms, including digital, that reflect aspects of culture and language for a variety of Vietnamese and Australian audiences
[Key concepts: cultural literacy, interconnection; Key processes: judging adequacy, translating, interpreting]

Reflecting

Reflect on how meanings vary according to cultural assumptions that Vietnamese and English speakers bring to interactions, and take responsibility for contributing to mutual understanding
[Key concepts: cultural assumptions, judgement; Key processes: reflecting, relating interculturally]

Reflect on own cultural identity and how it is both shaped by and influences ways of communicating, thinking and behaving
[Key concepts: perception, identity, communication; Key processes: discussing, evaluating, reflecting]

Systems of language

Understand the role of pronunciation, pauses, pace, intonation, fluency and appropriate writing conventions in effective communication and apply this knowledge to own interactions
[Key concept: intonation, fluency, meaning; Key process: applying]

Understand and use compound sentence structures, conjunctions, and a range of language features, such as similes or rhetorical questions, and combine them with knowledge of Sino-Vietnamese words and abstract vocabulary to enhance communication and achieve particular effects
[Key concept: grammatical systems; Key processes: understanding, applying]

Understand the relationship between purpose, audience, context, linguistic features, and textual and cultural elements associated with different types of personal, reflective, informative and persuasive texts
[Key concept: textual conventions; Key processes: discussing, applying]

Language variation and change

Analyse and explain how and why language use varies according to cultural contexts, relationships and purposes
[Key concepts: register, variation based on audience, context and purpose; Key processes: analysing, explaining]

Analyse the impact of media, technology, globalisation, migration and popular culture on Vietnamese language use in Vietnam and overseas
[Key concepts: impact, consequence; Key processes: analysing, explaining, comparing]

Role of language and culture

Understand the reciprocal relationship between language, culture and communication and how this relationship impacts on attitudes and beliefs
[Key concepts: language, culture, reciprocity; Key processes: reflecting, discussing, analysing]

By the end of Year 10, students use spoken and written Vietnamese to initiate, sustain and extend interactions with peers, teachers and others in a range of contexts and for a range of purposes, such as to explore peers’ perspectives on youth culture and personal experiences. They use language spontaneously in the classroom, offering and justifying their own opinions and ideas and eliciting those of others. They negotiate with others to complete shared tasks and transactions, using evaluative language, for example, Ý kiến của bạn rất mới lạ/hợp thời. Bạn nói có lý nhưng tôi nghĩ rằng …, to acknowledge others’ opinions and to challenge and manage alternative views. They use transitional sentences, such as Hay là mình thử làm thế này xem sao. Còn vấn đề bảo vệ môi trường thì sao?, to manage shifts of topic and speaker. They speak fluently, pausing where appropriate, and use stress in extended sentences to enhance communication. Students gather, synthesise and evaluate information and opinions from different perspectives and create original texts for diverse audiences and purposes in a range of contexts. They respond to a range of imaginative texts by analysing their purpose and language techniques, forming their own position on the issues, themes and values addressed. They create a range of imaginative texts to express a variety of perspectives and values in modes of presentation selected to suit audience, purpose and context. They combine knowledge of Sino–Vietnamese words and abstract vocabulary with stylistic devices to enhance expression, create particular effects and influence others, for example, through repetition (for example, đi nhanh, nói nhanh, ăn nhanh), similes (for example, mắt sáng như sao), personification (for example, lá sầu), onomatopoeia (for example, ào, rì rào, đùng), and rhetorical questions, for example, Chẳng lẽ mình là người Việt mà lại không biết nói tiếng Việt? They adjust their own language use when addressing a different audience or in a different context, for example, shifting from an informal to a respectful tone, and from simple to sophisticated vocabulary or structures. They convert informal everyday speech (for example, ai cũng biết hết) into formal register (for example, như quý vị đã biết), as appropriate. Students use conjunctions, such as trước tiên, sau cùng, ngoài ra, hơn nữa, do đó, càng … càng, vừa … vừa, chẳng những … mà còn, nếu…thì, tuy… nhưng, vì…cho nên, to sequence and connect ideas in texts, and apply accurate spelling to enhance communication. They translate and interpret texts and create bilingual resources for Vietnamese and English-speaking audiences, explaining how cultural concepts, values and beliefs are embedded in language. They compare views on the relationship between cultural identity and communication, question cultural assumptions, and modify language and behaviours in intercultural interactions as appropriate.

Students explain how pronunciation, intonation, pace and rhythm in spoken Vietnamese can express different emotions, for example, Con thích cái áo mà mẹ tặng cho con hôm sinh nhật vừa rồi, and signal clause boundaries and emphasis. They explain why Sino-Vietnamese words are used in formal contexts, for example, hội phụ nữ (not hội đàn bà) and viện dưỡng lão (not nhà người già). They analyse a range of personal, informative, reflective and persuasive texts and explain the relationship between context, purpose, audience, linguistic features and textual and cultural elements. They analyse how language use varies according to cultural contexts, relationships and purposes, explaining why they adjust their vocabulary and level of politeness and formality in intercultural interactions. They explain the impact of media, technology, globalisation, migration and popular culture on Vietnamese language use in both Australia and Vietnam. They explain the reciprocal nature of the relationship between language, culture and communication, identifying its impact on attitudes and beliefs.