Mathematics is the study of order, relation and pattern. From its origins in counting and measuring, it has evolved in highly sophisticated and elegant ways to become the language used to describe much of the physical world. Statistics is the study of ways of collecting and extracting information from data and of methods of using that information to describe and make predictions about the behaviour of aspects of the real world, in the face of uncertainty. Together, mathematics and statistics provide a framework for thinking and a means of communication that is powerful, logical, concise and precise.

Essential Mathematics focuses on enabling students to use mathematics effectively, efficiently and critically to make informed decisions in their daily lives. Essential Mathematics provides students with the mathematical knowledge, skills and understanding to solve problems in real contexts, in a range of workplace, personal, further learning and community settings. This subject offers students the opportunity to prepare for post-school options of employment and further training.

For all content areas of Essential Mathematics, the proficiency strands of understanding, fluency, problem solving and reasoning from the F–10 curriculum are still applicable and should be inherent in students’ learning of the subject. Each of these proficiencies is essential, and all are mutually reinforcing. For all content areas, practice allows students to develop fluency in their skills. Students will encounter opportunities for problem solving, such as finding the volume of a solid so that the amount of liquid held in a container can be compared with what is written on the label, or finding the interest on a sum of money to enable comparison between different types of loans. In Essential Mathematics, reasoning includes critically interpreting and analysing information represented through graphs, tables and other statistical representations to make informed decisions. The ability to transfer mathematical skills between contexts is a vital part of learning in this subject. For example, familiarity with the concept of a rate enables students to solve a wide range of practical problems, such as fuel consumption, travel times, interest payments, taxation, and population growth.

The content of the Essential Mathematics subject is designed to be taught within contexts that are relevant to the needs of the particular student cohort. The skills and understandings developed throughout the subject will be further enhanced and reinforced through presentation in an area of interest to the students.

Aims

Essential Mathematics aims to develop students’:

• understanding of concepts and techniques drawn from mathematics and statistics;
• ability to solve applied problems using concepts and techniques drawn from mathematics and statistics;
• reasoning and interpretive skills in mathematical and statistical contexts;
• capacity to communicate in a concise and systematic manner using appropriate mathematical and statistical language;
• capacity to choose and use technology appropriately.

Senior secondary Mathematics subjects

The Senior Secondary Australian Curriculum: Mathematics consists of four subjects in mathematics, with each subject organised into four units. The subjects are differentiated, each focusing on a pathway that will meet the learning needs of a particular group of senior secondary students.

Essential Mathematics focuses on using mathematics effectively, efficiently and critically to make informed decisions. It provides students with the mathematical knowledge, skills and understanding to solve problems in real contexts for a range of workplace, personal, further learning and community settings. This subject provides the opportunity for students to prepare for post-school options of employment and further training.

General Mathematics focuses on using the techniques of discrete mathematics to solve problems in contexts that include financial modelling, network analysis, route and project planning, decision making, and discrete growth and decay. It provides an opportunity to analyse and solve a wide range of geometrical problems in areas such as measurement, scaling, triangulation and navigation. It also provides opportunities to develop systematic strategies based on the statistical investigation process for answering statistical questions that involve comparing groups, investigating associations and analysing time series.

Mathematical Methods focuses on the development of the use of calculus and statistical analysis. The study of calculus in Mathematical Methods provides a basis for an understanding of the physical world involving rates of change, and includes the use of functions, their derivatives and integrals, in modelling physical processes. The study of statistics in Mathematical Methods develops the ability to describe and analyse phenomena involving uncertainty and variation.

Specialist Mathematics provides opportunities, beyond those presented in Mathematical Methods, to develop rigorous mathematical arguments and proofs, and to use mathematical models more extensively. Specialist Mathematics contains topics in functions and calculus that build on and deepen the ideas presented in Mathematical Methods as well as demonstrate their application in many areas. Specialist Mathematics also extends understanding and knowledge of probability and statistics and introduces the topics of vectors, complex numbers and matrices. Specialist Mathematics is the only mathematics subject that has been designed to not be taken as a stand-alone subject.

Unit 3

This unit has three topics: ‘Bivariate data analysis’, ‘Growth and decay in sequences’ and ‘Graphs and networks’.

‘Bivariate data analysis’ introduces students to some methods for identifying, analysing and describing associations between pairs of variables, including the use of the least-squares method as a tool for modelling and analysing linear associations. The content is to be taught within the framework of the statistical investigation process.

‘Growth and decay in sequences’ employs recursion to generate sequences that can be used to model and investigate patterns of growth and decay in discrete situations. These sequences find application in a wide range of practical situations, including modelling the growth of a compound interest investment, the growth of a bacterial population, or the decrease in the value of a car over time. Sequences are also essential to understanding the patterns of growth and decay in loans and investments that are studied in detail in Unit 4.

‘Graphs and networks’ introduces students to the language of graphs and the ways in which graphs, represented as a collection of points and interconnecting lines, can be used to model and analyse everyday situations such as a rail or social network.

Classroom access to technology to support the graphical and computational aspects of these topics is assumed.

By the end of this unit, students:

• understand the concepts and techniques in bivariate data analysis, growth and decay in sequences, and graphs and networks;
• apply reasoning skills and solve practical problems in bivariate data analysis, growth and decay in sequences, and graphs and networks;
• implement the statistical investigation process in contexts requiring the analysis of bivariate data;
• communicate their arguments and strategies, when solving mathematical and statistical problems, using appropriate mathematical or statistical language;
• interpret mathematical and statistical information, and ascertain the reasonableness of their solutions to problems and their answers to statistical questions;
• choose and use technology appropriately and efficiently.

Topic 1: Bivariate data analysis

The statistical investigation process:

• Review the statistical investigation process; for example, identifying a problem and posing a statistical question, collecting or obtaining data, analysing the data, interpreting and communicating the results.
• Identifying and describing associations between two categorical variables:
• construct two-way frequency tables and determine the associated row and column sums and percentages;
• use an appropriately percentaged two-way frequency table to identify patterns that suggest the presence of an association;
• describe an association in terms of differences observed in percentages across categories in a systematic and concise manner, and interpret this in the context of the data.

Identifying and describing associations between two numerical variables:

• construct a scatterplot to identify patterns in the data suggesting the presence of an association;
• describe an association between two numerical variables in terms of direction (positive/negative), form (linear/non-linear) and strength (strong/moderate/weak);
• calculate and interpret the correlation coefficient (r) to quantify the strength of a linear association.

Fitting a linear model to numerical data:

• identify the response variable and the explanatory variable;
• use a scatterplot to identify the nature of the relationship between variables;
• model a linear relationship by fitting a least-squares line to the data;
• use a residual plot to assess the appropriateness of fitting a linear model to the data;
• interpret the intercept and slope of the fitted line;
• use the coefficient of determination to assess the strength of a linear association in terms of the explained variation;
• use the equation of a fitted line to make predictions;
• distinguish between interpolation and extrapolation when using the fitted line to make predictions, recognising the potential dangers of extrapolation;
• write up the results of the above analysis in a systematic and concise manner.

Association and causation:

• recognise that an observed association between two variables does not necessarily mean that there is a causal relationship between them;
• identify possible non-causal explanations for an association, including coincidence and confounding due to a common response to another variable, and communicate these explanations in a systematic and concise manner.

The data investigation process:

Implement the statistical investigation process to answer questions that involve identifying, analysing and describing associations between two categorical variables or between two numerical variables; for example, is there an association between attitude to capital punishment (agree with, no opinion, disagree with) and sex (male, female)? is there an association between height and foot length?

Topic 2: Growth and decay in sequences

The arithmetic sequence:

• use recursion to generate an arithmetic sequence;
• display the terms of an arithmetic sequence in both tabular and graphical form and demonstrate that arithmetic sequences can be used to model linear growth and decay in discrete situations;
• deduce a rule for the nth term of a particular arithmetic sequence from the pattern of the terms in an arithmetic sequence, and use this rule to make predictions;
• use arithmetic sequences to model and analyse practical situations involving linear growth or decay; for example, analysing a simple interest loan or investment, calculating a taxi fare based on the flag fall and the charge per kilometre, or calculating the value of an office photocopier at the end of each year using the straight-line method or the unit cost method of depreciation.

The geometric sequence:

• use recursion to generate a geometric sequence;
• display the terms of a geometric sequence in both tabular and graphical form and demonstrate that geometric sequences can be used to model exponential growth and decay in discrete situations;
• deduce a rule for the nth term of a particular geometric sequence from the pattern of the terms in the sequence, and use this rule to make predictions;
• use geometric sequences to model and analyse (numerically, or graphically only) practical problems involving geometric growth and decay; for example, analysing a compound interest loan or investment, the growth of a bacterial population that doubles in size each hour, the decreasing height of the bounce of a ball at each bounce; or calculating the value of office furniture at the end of each year using the declining (reducing) balance method to depreciate.

Sequences generated by first-order linear recurrence relations:

• use a general first-order linear recurrence relation to generate the terms of a sequence and to display it in both tabular and graphical form;
• recognise that a sequence generated by a first-order linear recurrence relation can have a long term increasing, decreasing or steady-state solution;
• use first-order linear recurrence relations to model and analyse (numerically or graphically only) practical problems; for example, investigating the growth of a trout population in a lake recorded at the end of each year and where limited recreational fishing is permitted, or the amount owing on a reducing balance loan after each payment is made.

Topic 3: Graphs and networks

The definition of a graph and associated terminology:

• explain the meanings of the terms: graph, edge, vertex, loop, degree of a vertex, subgraph, simple graph, complete graph, bipartite graph, directed graph (digraph), arc, weighted graph, and network;
• identify practical situations that can be represented by a network, and construct such networks; for example, trails connecting camp sites in a National Park, a social network, a transport network with one-way streets, a food web, the results of a round-robin sporting competition;
• construct an adjacency matrix from a given graph or digraph.

Planar graphs:

• explain the meaning of the terms: planar graph, and face;
• apply Euler’s formula, v+f−e=2, to solve problems relating to planar graphs.

Paths and cycles:

• explain the meaning of the terms: walk, trail, path, closed walk, closed trail, cycle, connected graph, and bridge;
• investigate and solve practical problems to determine the shortest path between two vertices in a weighted graph (by trial-and-error methods only);
• explain the meaning of the terms: Eulerian graph, Eulerian trail, semi-Eulerian graph, semi-Eulerian trail and the conditions for their existence, and use these concepts to investigate and solve practical problems; for example, the Königsberg Bridge problem, planning a garbage bin collection route;
• explain the meaning of the terms: Hamiltonian graph and semi-Hamiltonian graph, and use these concepts to investigate and solve practical problems; for example, planning a sight-seeing tourist route around a city, the travelling-salesman problem (by trial-and-error methods only).

Unit 4

This unit has three topics: ‘Time series analysis’; ‘ Loans, investments and annuities’ and ‘Networks and decision mathematics’.

‘Time series analysis’ continues students’ study of statistics by introducing them to the concepts and techniques of time series analysis. The content is to be taught within the framework of the statistical investigation process.

‘Loans and investments and annuities’ aims to provide students with sufficient knowledge of financial mathematics to solve practical problems associated with taking out or refinancing a mortgage and making investments.

‘Networks and decision mathematics’ uses networks to model and aid decision making in practical situations.

Classroom access to the technology necessary to support the graphical, computational and statistical aspects of this unit is assumed.

By the end of this unit, students:

• understand the concepts and techniques in time series analysis; loans, investments and annuities; and networks and decision mathematics;
• apply reasoning skills and solve practical problems in time series analysis; loans, investments and annuities; and networks and decision mathematics;
• implement the statistical investigation process in contexts requiring the analysis of time series data;
• communicate their arguments and strategies, when solving mathematical and statistical problems, using appropriate mathematical or statistical language;
• interpret mathematical and statistical information, and ascertain the reasonableness of their solutions to problems and their answers to statistical questions;
• choose and use technology appropriately and efficiently.

Topic 1: Time series analysis

Describing and interpreting patterns in time series data:

• construct time series plots;
• describe time series plots by identifying features such as trend (long term direction), seasonality (systematic, calendar-related movements), and irregular fluctuations (unsystematic, short term fluctuations), and recognise when there are outliers; for example, one-off unanticipated events.

Analysing time series data:

• smooth time series data by using a simple moving average, including the use of spreadsheets to implement this process;
• calculate seasonal indices by using the average percentage method;
• deseasonalise a time series by using a seasonal index, including the use of spreadsheets to implement this process;
• fit a least-squares line to model long-term trends in time series data.

The data investigation process:

Implement the statistical investigation process to answer questions that involve the analysis of time series data.

Topic 2: Loans, investments and annuities

Compound interest loans and investments:

• use a recurrence relation to model a compound interest loan or investment, and investigate (numerically or graphically) the effect of the interest rate and the number of compounding periods on the future value of the loan or investment;
• calculate the effective annual rate of interest and use the results to compare investment returns and cost of loans when interest is paid or charged daily, monthly, quarterly or six-monthly;
• with the aid of a calculator or computer-based financial software, solve problems involving compound interest loans or investments; for example, determining the future value of a loan, the number of compounding periods for an investment to exceed a given value, the interest rate needed for an investment to exceed a given value.

Reducing balance loans (compound interest loans with periodic repayments):

• use a recurrence relation to model a reducing balance loan and investigate (numerically or graphically) the effect of the interest rate and repayment amount on the time taken to repay the loan;
• with the aid of a financial calculator or computer-based financial software, solve problems involving reducing balance loans; for example, determining the monthly repayments required to pay off a housing loan.

Annuities and perpetuities (compound interest investments with periodic payments made from the investment):

• use a recurrence relation to model an annuity, and investigate (numerically or graphically) the effect of the amount invested, the interest rate, and the payment amount on the duration of the annuity;
• with the aid of a financial calculator or computer-based financial software, solve problems involving annuities (including perpetuities as a special case); for example, determining the amount to be invested in an annuity to provide a regular monthly income of a certain amount.

Topic 3: Networks and decision mathematics

Trees and minimum connector problems:

• explain the meaning of the terms tree and spanning tree identify practical examples;
• identify a minimum spanning tree in a weighted connected graph either by inspection or by using Prim’s algorithm;
• use minimal spanning trees to solve minimal connector problems; for example, minimising the length of cable needed to provide power from a single power station to substations in several towns.

Project planning and scheduling using critical path analysis (CPA):

• construct a network to represent the durations and interdependencies of activities that must be completed during the project; for example, preparing a meal;
• use forward and backward scanning to determine the earliest starting time (EST) and latest starting times (LST) for each activity in the project;
• use ESTs and LSTs to locate the critical path(s) for the project;
• use the critical path to determine the minimum time for a project to be completed;
• calculate float times for non-critical activities.

Flow networks

Solve small-scale network flow problems including the use of the ‘maximum-flow minimum- cut’ theorem; for example, determining the maximum volume of oil that can flow through a network of pipes from an oil storage tank (the source) to a terminal (the sink).

Assignment problems

• use a bipartite graph and/or its tabular or matrix form to represent an assignment/ allocation problem; for example, assigning four swimmers to the four places in a medley relay team to maximise the team’s chances of winning;
• determine the optimum assignment(s), by inspection for small-scale problems, or by use of the Hungarian algorithm for larger problems.

Concepts and Techniques

A.

• demonstrates knowledge of concepts of statistics, growth and decay in sequences, graphs and networks, and financial mathematics in routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts;
• selects and applies techniques in mathematics and statistics to solve routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts;
• develops, selects and applies mathematical and statistical models to routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts;
• uses digital technologies effectively to graph, display and organise mathematical and statistical information to solve a range of routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts.

B.

• demonstrates knowledge of concepts of statistics, growth and decay in sequences, graphs and networks, and financial mathematics in routine and non-routine problems;
• selects and applies techniques in mathematics and statistics to solve routine and non-routine problems;
• selects and applies mathematical and statistical models to routine and non-routine problems;
• uses digital technologies appropriately to graph, display and organise mathematical and statistical information to solve a range of routine and non-routine problems.

C.

• demonstrates knowledge of concepts of statistics, growth and decay in sequences, graphs and networks, and financial mathematics that apply to routine problems;
• selects and applies techniques in mathematics and statistics to solve routine problems;
• applies mathematical and statistical models to routine problems;
• uses digital technologies to graph, display and organise mathematical and statistical information to solve routine problems.

D.

• demonstrates knowledge of concepts of statistics, growth and decay in sequences, graphs and networks, and financial mathematics;
• uses simple techniques in mathematics and statistics in routine problems;
• demonstrates familiarity with mathematical and statistical models;
• uses digital technologies to display some mathematical and statistical information in routine problems.

E.

• demonstrates limited familiarity with simple concepts of statistics, growth and decay in sequences, graphs and networks, and financial mathematics;
• uses simple techniques in a structured context;
• demonstrates limited familiarity with mathematical or statistical models;
• uses digital technologies for arithmetic calculations and to display limited mathematical and statistical information.

Reasoning and Communication

A.

• represents mathematical and statistical information in numerical, graphical and symbolic form in routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts;
• communicates mathematical and statistical judgments and arguments which are succinct and reasoned using appropriate language;
• interprets the solutions to routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts;
• explains the reasonableness of the results and solutions to routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts;
• identifies and explains the validity and limitations of models used when developing solutions to routine and non-routine problems.

B.

• represents mathematical and statistical information in numerical, graphical and symbolic form in routine and non-routine problems;
• communicates mathematical and statistical judgments and arguments which are clear and reasoned using appropriate language;
• interprets the solutions to routine and non-routine problems;
• explains the reasonableness of the results and solutions to routine and non-routine problems;
• identifies and explains limitations of models used when developing solutions to routine problems.

C.

• represents mathematical and statistical information in numerical, graphical and symbolic form in routine problems;
• communicates mathematical and statistical arguments using appropriate language;
• interprets the solutions to routine problems;
• describes the reasonableness of the results and solutions to routine problems;
• identifies limitations of models used when developing solutions to routine problem.

D.

• represents simple mathematical and statistical information in numerical, graphical or symbolic form in routine problems;
• communicates simple mathematical and statistical information using appropriate language;
• describes solutions to routine problems;
• describes the appropriateness of the results of calculations;
• identifies limitations of simple models.

E.

• represents simple mathematical or statistical information in a structured context;
• communicates simple mathematical or statistical information;
• identifies solutions to routine problems;
• demonstrates limited familiarity with the appropriateness of the results of calculations;
• identifies simple models.

Unit 3

This unit provides students with the mathematical skills and understanding to solve problems related to measurement, scales, plans and models, drawing and interpreting graphs, and data collection. Teachers are encouraged to apply the content of the four topics in this unit – ‘Measurement’, ‘Scales, plans and models’, ‘Graphs’ and ‘Data collection’ – in a context which is meaningful and of interest to the students. A variety of approaches can be used to achieve this purpose. Two possible contexts which may be used in this unit are Mathematics and design and Mathematics and medicine. However, as these contexts may not be relevant to all students, teachers are encouraged to find suitable contexts relevant to their particular student cohort.

It is assumed that an extensive range of technological applications and techniques will be used in teaching this unit. The ability to choose when and when not to use some form of technology, and the ability to work flexibly with technology, are important skills.

By the end of this unit, students:

• understand the concepts and techniques used in measurement, scales, plans and models, graphs, and data collection;
• apply reasoning skills and solve practical problems in measurement, scales, plans and models, graphs, and data collection;
• communicate their arguments and strategies when solving mathematical and statistical problems using appropriate mathematical or statistical language;
• interpret mathematical and statistical information and ascertain the reasonableness of their solutions to problems.

Topic 1: Measurement

Linear measure:

• review metric units of length, their abbreviations, conversions between them, estimation of lengths, and appropriate choices of units;
• calculate perimeters of familiar shapes, including triangles, squares, rectangles, polygons, circles, arc lengths, and composites of these.

Area measure:

• review metric units of area, their abbreviations, and conversions between them;
• use formulas to calculate areas of regular shapes, including triangles, squares, rectangles, parallelograms, trapeziums, circles and sectors;
• find the area of irregular figures by decomposition into regular shapes;
• find the surface area of familiar solids, including cubes, rectangular and triangular prisms, spheres and cylinders;
• find the surface area of pyramids, such as rectangular- and triangular-based pyramids;
• use addition of the area of the faces of solids to find the surface area of irregular solids.

Mass:

• review metric units of mass (and weight), their abbreviations, conversions between them, and appropriate choices of units;
• recognise the need for milligrams;
• convert between grams and milligrams.

Volume and capacity:

• review metric units of volume, their abbreviations, conversions between them, and appropriate choices of units;
• recognise relations between volume and capacity, recognising that 1cm³ = 1mL and 1m³ = 1kL;
• use formulas to find the volume and capacity of regular objects such as cubes, rectangular and triangular prisms and cylinders;
• use formulas to find the volume of pyramids and spheres.

Topic 2: Scales, plans and models

Geometry:

• recognise the properties of common two-dimensional geometric shapes and three-dimensional solids;
• interpret different forms of two-dimensional representations of three-dimensional objects, including nets and perspective diagrams;
• use symbols and conventions for the representation of geometric information; for example, point, line, ray, angle, diagonal, edge, curve, face and vertex.

Interpret scale drawings:

• interpret commonly used symbols and abbreviations in scale drawings;
• find actual measurements from scale drawings, such as lengths, perimeters and areas;
• estimate and compare quantities, materials and costs using actual measurements from scale drawings; for example, using measurements for packaging, clothes, painting, bricklaying and landscaping.

Creating scale drawings:

• understand and apply drawing conventions of scale drawings, such as scales in ratio, clear indications of dimensions, and clear labelling;
• construct scale drawings by hand and by using software packages.

Three dimensional objects:

• interpret plans and elevation views of models;
• sketch elevation views of different models;
• interpret diagrams of three-dimensional objects.

Right-angled triangles:

• apply Pythagoras’ theorem to solve problems;
• apply the tangent ratio to find unknown angles and sides in right-angled triangles;
• work with the concepts of angle of elevation and angle of depression;
• apply the cosine and sine ratios to find unknown angles and sides in right-angled triangles;
• solve problems involving bearings.

Topic 3: Graphs

Cartesian plane:

• demonstrate familiarity with Cartesian coordinates in two dimensions by plotting points on the Cartesian plane;
• generate tables of values for linear functions, including for negative values of x;
• graph linear functions for all values of x with pencil and paper and with graphing software.

Using graphs:

• interpret and use graphs in practical situations, including travel graphs and conversion graphs;
• draw graphs from given data to represent practical situations;
• interpret the point of intersection and other important features of given graphs of two linear functions drawn from practical contexts; for example, the ‘break-even’ point.

Topic 4: Data collection

Census:

• investigate the procedure for conducting a census;
• investigate the advantages and disadvantages of conducting a census.

Surveys:

• understand the purpose of sampling to provide an estimate of population values when a census is not used;
• investigate the different kinds of samples; for example, systematic samples, self-selected samples, simple random samples;
• investigate the advantages and disadvantages of these kinds of samples; for example, comparing simple random samples with self-selected samples.

Simple survey procedure:

• identify the target population to be surveyed;
• investigate questionnaire design principles; for example, simple language, unambiguous questions, consideration of number of choices, issues of privacy and ethics, and freedom from bias.

Sources of bias:

• describe the faults in the collection of data process;
• describe sources of error in surveys; for example, sampling error and measurement error;
• investigate the possible misrepresentation of the results of a survey due to misunderstanding the procedure, or misunderstanding the reliability of generalising the survey findings to the entire population;
• investigate errors and misrepresentation in surveys, including examples of media misrepresentations of surveys.

Bivariate scatterplots:

• describe the patterns and features of bivariate data;
• describe the association between two numerical variables in terms of direction (positive/negative), form (linear/non-linear) and strength (strong/moderate/weak).

Line of best fit:

• identify the dependent and independent variable;
• find the line of best fit by eye;
• use technology to find the line of best fit;
• interpret relationships in terms of the variables;
• use technology to find the correlation coefficient (an indicator of the strength of linear association);
• use the line of best fit to make predictions, both by interpolation and extrapolation;
• recognise the dangers of extrapolation;
• distinguish between causality and correlation through examples.

Unit 4

This unit provides students with the mathematical skills and understanding to solve problems related to probability, Earth geometry and time zones, and loans and compound interest. Teachers are encouraged to apply the content of the three topics in this unit – ‘Probability and relative frequencies’, ‘Earth geometry and time zones’ and ‘Loans and compound interest’ – in a context which is meaningful and of interest to the students. A variety of approaches can be used to achieve this purpose. Two possible contexts which may be used in this unit are Mathematics of finance and Mathematics of travelling. However, as these contexts may not be relevant to all students, teachers are encouraged to find suitable contexts relevant to their particular student cohort.

It is assumed that an extensive range of technological applications and techniques will be used in teaching this unit. The ability to choose when and when not to use some form of technology, and the ability to work flexibly with technology, are important skills.

By the end of this unit, students:

• understand the concepts and techniques used in probability and relative frequencies, earth geometry and time zones, loans and compound interest;
• apply reasoning skills and solve practical problems in probability and relative frequencies, earth geometry and time zones, loans and compound interest;
• communicate their arguments and strategies when solving mathematical problems using appropriate mathematical or statistical language;
• interpret mathematical information and ascertain the reasonableness of their solutions to problems.

Topic 1: Probability and relative frequencies

Probability expressions:

• interpret commonly used probability statements, including ‘possible’, ‘probable’, ‘likely’, ‘certain’;
• describe ways of expressing probabilities formally using fractions, decimals, ratios, and percentages.

Simulations:

• perform simulations of experiments using technology;
• recognise that the repetition of chance events is likely to produce different results;
• identify relative frequency as probability;
• identify factors that could complicate the simulation of real-world events.

Simple probabilities:

• construct a sample space for an experiment;
• use a sample space to determine the probability of outcomes for an experiment;
• use arrays or tree diagrams to determine the outcomes and the probabilities for experiments.

Probability applications:

• determine the probabilities associated with simple games;
• determine the probabilities of occurrence of simple traffic-light problems.

Topic 2: Earth geometry and time zones

Location:

• locate positions on Earth’s surface given latitude and longitude using GPS, a globe, an atlas, and digital technologies;
• find distances between two places on Earth on the same longitude;
• find distances between two places on Earth using appropriate technology.

Time:

• understand the link between longitude and time;
• solve problems involving time zones in Australia and in neighbouring nations, making any necessary allowances for daylight saving;
• solve problems involving Greenwich Mean Time and the International Date Line;
• find time differences between two places on Earth;
• solve problems associated with time zones; for example, internet and phone usage;
• solve problems relating to travelling east and west, incorporating time zone changes.

Topic 3: Loans and compound interest

Compound interest:

• review the principles of simple interest;
• understand the concept of compound interest as a recurrence relation;
• consider similar problems involving compounding; for example, population growth;
• use technology to calculate the future value of a compound interest loan or investment and the total interest paid or earned;
• use technology to compare, numerically and graphically, the growth of simple interest and compound interest loans and investments;
• use technology to investigate the effect of the interest rate and the number of compounding periods on the future value of a loan or investment.

Reducing balance loans (compound interest loans with periodic repayments):

• use technology and a recurrence relation to model a reducing balance loan;
• investigate the effect of the interest rate and repayment amount on the time taken to repay a loan.

Concepts and Techniques

A.

• demonstrates knowledge of concepts of measurement, scales, graphs and statistics in routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts;
• selects and applies techniques in measurement, scales, graphs and statistics to solve routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts;
• uses digital technologies effectively to display and organise mathematical and statistical information to solve routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts.

B.

• demonstrates knowledge of concepts of measurement, scales, graphs and statistics in routine and non-routine problems;
• selects and applies techniques in measurement, scales, graphs and statistics to solve routine and non-routine problems;
• uses digital technologies appropriately to display and organise mathematical and statistical information to solve routine and non-routine problems.

C.

• demonstrates knowledge of concepts of measurement, scales, graphs and statistics in routine problems;
• selects and applies techniques in measurement, scales, graphs and statistics to solve routine problems;
• uses digital technologies to display and organise mathematical and statistical information to solve routine problems.

D.

• demonstrates familiarity with concepts of measurement, scales, graphs and statistics;
• uses simple techniques in measurement, scales, graphs and statistics;
• uses digital technologies to display and organise simple mathematical and statistical information.

E.

• demonstrates limited familiarity with concepts of measurement, scales, graphs and statistics;
• uses simple techniques in a structured context;
• uses digital technologies for arithmetic calculations.

Reasoning and Communication

A.

• represents mathematical and statistical information in numerical, graphical and symbolic form in routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts;
• communicates clear and reasoned observations and judgments using appropriate mathematical and statistical language;
• interprets the solutions to routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts
• explains the reasonableness of results and solutions to routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts.

B.

• represents mathematical and statistical information in numerical, graphical and symbolic form in routine and non-routine problems;
• communicates clear observations and judgments using appropriate mathematical and statistical language;
• interprets the solutions to routine and non-routine problems;
• explains the reasonableness of results and solutions to routine and non-routine problems.

C.

• represents mathematical and statistical information in numerical, graphical and symbolic form in routine problems;
• communicates observations and judgments using appropriate mathematical and statistical language;
• interprets the solutions to routine problems;
• describes the reasonableness of results and solutions to routine problems.

D.

• represents simple mathematical and statistical information in numerical, graphical and symbolic form;
• describes observations using mathematical and statistical language;
• describes the solutions to routine problems;
• describes the appropriateness of the results of calculations.

E.

• represents simple mathematical and statistical information in a structured context;
• describes simple observations;
• identifies the solutions to routine problems;
• demonstrates limited familiarity with the appropriateness of the results of calculations.

Unit 3

In this unit the study of calculus continues with the derivatives of exponential and trigonometric functions and their applications, together with some differentiation techniques and applications to optimisation problems and graph sketching. It concludes with integration, both as a process that reverses differentiation and as a way of calculating areas. The fundamental theorem of calculus as a link between differentiation and integration is emphasised. In statistics, discrete random variables are introduced, together with their uses in modelling random processes involving chance and variation. This supports the development of a framework for statistical inference.

By the end of this unit, students:

• understand the concepts and techniques in calculus, probability and statistics;
• solve problems in calculus, probability and statistics;
• apply reasoning skills in calculus, probability and statistics;
• interpret and evaluate mathematical and statistical information and ascertain the reasonableness of solutions to problems;
• communicate their arguments and strategies when solving problems.

Topic 1: Further differentiation and applications

Exponential functions:

• estimate the limit of as h→0 using technology, for various values of a >0;
• recognise that e is the unique number a for which the above limit is 1;
• establish and use the formula ;
• use exponential functions and their derivatives to solve practical problems.

Trigonometric functions:

• establish the formulas and by numerical estimations of the limits and informal proofs based on geometric constructions;
• use trigonometric functions and their derivatives to solve practical problems.

Differentiation rules:

• understand and use the product and quotient rules;
• understand the notion of composition of functions and use the chain rule for determining the derivatives of composite functions;
• apply the product, quotient and chain rule to differentiate functions such as , tan x, , x sin x, and .

The second derivative and applications of differentiation:

• use the increments formula: to estimate the change in the dependent variable y resulting from changes in the independent variable x;
• understand the concept of the second derivative as the rate of change of the first derivative function;
• recognise acceleration as the second derivative of position with respect to time;
• understand the concepts of concavity and points of inflection and their relationship with the second derivative;
• understand and use the second derivative test for finding local maxima and minima;
• sketch the graph of a function using first and second derivatives to locate stationary points and points of inflection;
• solve optimisation problems from a wide variety of fields using first and second derivatives.

Topic 2: Integrals

Anti-differentiation:

• recognise anti-differentiation as the reverse of differentiation;
• use the notation ∫ f(x) dx for anti-derivatives or indefinite integrals;
• establish and use the formula ;
• establish and use the formula ;
• establish and use the formulas and ;
• recognise and use linearity of anti-differentiation;
• determine indefinite integrals of the form ;
• identify families of curves with the same derivative function;
• determine f(x), given f ‘ (x) and an initial condition f(a)=b;
• determine displacement given velocity in linear motion problems.

Definite integrals:

• examine the area problem, and use sums of the form to estimate the area under the curve y=f(x);
• interpret the definite integral as area under the curve y=f(x) if f(x)>0 ;
• recognise the definite integral as a limit of sums of the form ;
• interpret as a sum of signed areas;
• recognise and use the additivity and linearity of definite integrals.

Fundamental theorem:

• understand the concept of the signed area function ;
• understand and use the theorem: and illustrate its proof geometrically;
• understand the formula and use it to calculate definite integrals.

Applications of integration:

• calculate the area under a curve;
• calculate total change by integrating instantaneous or marginal rate of change;
• calculate the area between curves in simple cases;
• determine positions given acceleration and initial values of position and velocity.

Topic 3: Discrete random variables

General discrete random variables:

• understand the concepts of a discrete random variable and its associated probability function, and their use in modelling data;
• use relative frequencies obtained from data to obtain point estimates of probabilities associated with a discrete random variable;
• recognise uniform discrete random variables and use them to model random phenomena with equally likely outcomes;
• examine simple examples of non-uniform discrete random variables;
• recognise the mean or expected value of a discrete random variable as a measurement of centre, and evaluate it in simple cases;
• recognise the variance and standard deviation of a discrete random variable as a measures of spread, and evaluate them in simple cases;
• use discrete random variables and associated probabilities to solve practical problems.

Bernoulli distributions:

• use a Bernoulli random variable as a model for two-outcome situations;
• identify contexts suitable for modelling by Bernoulli random variables;
• recognise the mean p and variance p(1-p) of the Bernoulli distribution with parameter p;
• use Bernoulli random variables and associated probabilities to model data and solve practical problems.

Binomial distributions:

• understand the concepts of Bernoulli trials and the concept of a binomial random variable as the number of ‘successes’ in n
  independent Bernoulli trials, with the same probability of success p in each trial;
• identify contexts suitable for modelling by binomial random variables;
• determine and use the probabilities associated with the binomial distribution with parameters n
  and p ; note the mean np and variance np(1-p) of a binomial distribution;
• use binomial distributions and associated probabilities to solve practical problems.

Unit 4

The calculus in this unit deals with derivatives of logarithmic functions. In probability and statistics, continuous random variables and their applications are introduced and the normal distribution is used in a variety of contexts. The study of statistical inference in this unit is the culmination of earlier work on probability and random variables. Statistical inference is one of the most important parts of statistics, in which the goal is to estimate an unknown parameter associated with a population using a sample of data drawn from that population. In Mathematical Methods statistical inference is restricted to estimating proportions in two-outcome populations.

By the end of this unit, students:

• understand the concepts and techniques in calculus, probability and statistics;
• solve problems in calculus, probability and statistics;
• apply reasoning skills in calculus, probability and statistics;
• interpret and evaluate mathematical and statistical information and ascertain the reasonableness of solutions to problems;
• communicate their arguments and strategies when solving problems.

Topic 1: The logarithmic function

Logarithmic functions:

• define logarithms as indices: is equivalent to ;
• establish and use the algebraic properties of logarithms;
• recognise the inverse relationship between logarithms and exponentials: is equivalent to ;
• interpret and use logarithmic scales such as decibels in acoustics, the Richter Scale for earthquake magnitude, octaves in music, pH in chemistry;
• solve equations involving indices using logarithms;
• recognise the qualitative features of the graph of including asymptotes, and of its translations and
  ;
• solve simple equations involving logarithmic functions algebraically and graphically;
• identify contexts suitable for modelling by logarithmic functions and use them to solve practical problems.

Calculus of logarithmic functions:

• define the natural logarithm ;
• recognise and use the inverse relationship of the functions and ;
• establish and use the formula ;
• establish and use the formula ;
• use logarithmic functions and their derivatives to solve practical problems.

Topic 2: Continuous random variables and the normal distribution

General continuous random variables:

• use relative frequencies and histograms obtained from data to estimate probabilities associated with a continuous random variable;
• understand the concepts of a probability density function, cumulative distribution function, and probabilities associated with a continuous random variable given by integrals; examine simple types of continuous random variables and use them in appropriate contexts;
• recognise the expected value, variance and standard deviation of a continuous random variable and evaluate them in simple cases;
• understand the effects of linear changes of scale and origin on the mean and the standard deviation.

Normal distributions:

• identify contexts such as naturally occurring variation that are suitable for modelling by normal random variables;
• recognise features of the graph of the probability density function of the normal distribution with mean μ and standard deviation
  σ and the use of the standard normal distribution;
• calculate probabilities and quantities associated with a given normal distribution using technology, and use these to solve practical problems.

Topic 3: Interval estimates for proportions

Random sampling:

• understand the concept of a random sample;
• discuss sources of bias in samples, and procedures to ensure randomness;
• use graphical displays of simulated data to investigate the variability of random samples from various types of distributions, including uniform, normal and Bernoulli.

Sample proportions:

• understand the concept of the sample proportion p̂ as a random variable whose value varies between samples, and the formulas for the mean p and standard deviation of the same proportion p̂;
• examine the approximate normality of the distribution of p̂ for large samples;
• simulate repeated random sampling, for a variety of values of p and a range of sample sizes, to illustrate the distribution of
  p̂ and the approximate standard normality of where closeness of the approximation depends on n and p.

Confidence intervals for proportions:

• the concept of an interval estimate for a parameter associated with a random variable;
• use the approximate confidence interval;
• define the approximate margin of error;
• use simulation to illustrate variations in confidence intervals between samples and to show that most but not all confidence intervals contain p.

Concepts and Techniques

A.

• demonstrates knowledge of concepts of functions, integration and distributions in routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts;
• selects and applies techniques in functions, integration and distributions to solve routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts;
• develops, selects and applies mathematical and statistical models in routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts;
• uses digital technologies effectively to graph, display and organise mathematical and statistical information and to solve a range of routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts.

B.

• demonstrates knowledge of concepts of functions, integration and distributions in routine and non-routine problems;
• selects and applies techniques in functions, integration and distributions to solve routine and non-routine problems;
• selects and applies mathematical and statistical models in routine and non-routine problems;
• uses digital technologies appropriately to graph, display and organise mathematical and statistical information and to solve a range of routine and non-routine problems.

C.

• demonstrates knowledge of concepts of functions, integration and distributions that apply to routine problems;
• selects and applies techniques in functions, integration and distributions to solve routine problems;
• applies mathematical and statistical models in routine problems;
• uses digital technologies to graph, display and organise mathematical and statistical information to solve routine problems.

D.

• demonstrates knowledge of concepts of simple functions, integration and distributions;
• uses simple techniques in functions, integration and distributions in routine problems;
• demonstrates familiarity with mathematical and statistical models;
• uses digital technologies to display some mathematical and statistical information in routine problems.

E.

• demonstrates limited familiarity with concepts of simple functions, integration and distributions;
• uses simple techniques in a structured context;
• demonstrates limited familiarity with mathematical or statistical models;
• uses digital technologies for arithmetic calculations and to display limited mathematical and statistical information.

Reasoning and Communication

A.

• represents functions, integration and distributions in numerical, graphical and symbolic form in routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts;
• communicates mathematical and statistical judgments and arguments, which are succinct and reasoned, using appropriate language;
• interprets the solutions to routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts;
• explains the reasonableness of the results and solutions to routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts;
• identifies and explains the validity and limitations of models used when developing solutions to routine and non-routine problems.

B.

• represents functions, integration and distributions in numerical, graphical and symbolic form in routine and non-routine problems;
• communicates mathematical and statistical judgments and arguments, which are clear and reasoned, using appropriate language;
• interprets the solutions to routine and non-routine problems;
• explains the reasonableness of the results and solutions to routine and non-routine problems;
• identifies and explains the limitations of models used when developing solutions to routine problems.

C.

• represents functions, integration and distributions in numerical, graphical and symbolic form in routine problems;
• communicates mathematical and statistical arguments using appropriate language;
• interprets the solutions to routine problems;
• describes the reasonableness of results and solutions to routine problems;
• identifies the limitations of models used when developing solutions to routine problems.

D.

• represents simple functions and distributions in numerical, graphical or symbolic form in routine problems;
• communicates simple mathematical and statistical information using appropriate language;
• describes solutions to routine problems;
• describes the appropriateness of the result of calculations;
• identifies limitations of simple models used.

E.

• represents limited mathematical or statistical information in a structured context;
• communicates simple mathematical and statistical information;
• identifies solutions to routine problems;
• demonstrates limited familiarity with the appropriateness of the results of calculations;
• identifies simple models.

Unit 3

Unit 3 of Specialist Mathematics contains three topics: ‘Vectors in three dimensions’, ‘Complex numbers’ and ‘Functions and sketching graphs’. The study of vectors was introduced in Unit 1 with a focus on vectors in two-dimensional space. In this unit, three-dimensional vectors are studied and vector equations and vector calculus are introduced, with the latter extending students’ knowledge of calculus from Mathematical Methods. Cartesian and vector equations, together with equations of planes, enables students to solve geometric problems and to solve problems involving motion in three-dimensional space.The Cartesian form of complex numbers was introduced in Unit 2, and the study of complex numbers is now extended to the polar form.

The study of functions and techniques of graph sketching, begun in Mathematical Methods, is extended and applied in sketching graphs and solving problems involving integration.

By the end of this unit, students will:

• understand the concepts and techniques in vectors, complex numbers, functions and graph sketching;
• apply reasoning skills and solve problems in vectors, complex numbers, functions and graph sketching;
• communicate their arguments and strategies when solving problems;
• construct proofs of results;
• interpret mathematical information and ascertain the reasonableness of their solutions to problems.

Topic 1: Complex numbers

Cartesian forms:

• review real and imaginary parts Re(z) and Im(z) of a complex number z;
• review Cartesian form;
• review complex arithmetic using Cartesian forms.

Complex arithmetic using polar form:

use the modulus |z| of a complex number z and the argument Arg (z) of a non-zero complex number z and prove basic identities involving modulus and argument;

convert between Cartesian and polar form;

• define and use multiplication, division, and powers of complex numbers in polar form and the geometric interpretation of these;
• prove and use De Moivre’s theorem for integral powers.

The complex plane (the Argand plane):

• examine and use addition of complex numbers as vector addition in the complex plane;
• examine and use multiplication as a linear transformation in the complex plane;
• identify subsets of the complex plane determined by relations such as|z−3i|≤4 π/4≤Arg(z)≤3π/4, Re(z)>Im(z) and |z−1|=2|z−i|.

Roots of complex numbers:

• determine and examine the nth roots of unity and their location on the unit circle;
• determine and examine the nth roots of complex numbers and their location in the complex plane.

Factorisation of polynomials:

• prove and apply the factor theorem and the remainder theorem for polynomials;
• consider conjugate roots for polynomials with real coefficients;
• solve simple polynomial equations.

Topic 2: Functions and sketching graphs

Functions:

• determine when the composition of two functions is defined;
• find the composition of two functions;
• determine if a function is one-to-one;
• consider inverses of one-to-one function;
• examine the reflection property of the graph of a function and the graph of its inverse.

Sketching graphs:

• use and apply the notation |x| for the absolute value for the real number x and the graph of y=|x|;
• examine the relationship between the graph of y=f(x) and the graphs of y=1/f(x),y=|f(x)| and y=f(|x|);
• sketch the graphs of simple rational functions where the numerator and denominator are polynomials of low degree.

Topic 3: Vectors in three dimensions

The algebra of vectors in three dimensions:

• review the concepts of vectors from Unit 1 and extend to three dimensions including introducing the unit vectors i, j and k;
• prove geometric results in the plane and construct simple proofs in three-dimensions.

Vector and Cartesian equations:

• introduce Cartesian coordinates for three-dimensional space, including plotting points and the equations of spheres;
• use vector equations of curves in two or three dimensions involving a parameter, and determine a ‘corresponding’ Cartesian equation in the two-dimensional case;
• determine a vector equation of a straight line and straight-line segment, given the position of two points, or equivalent information, in both two and three dimensions;
• examine the position of two particles each described as a vector function of time, and determine if their paths cross or if the particles meet;
• use the cross product to determine a vector normal to a given plane;
• determine vector and Cartesian equations of a plane and of regions in a plane.

Systems of linear equations:

• recognise the general form of a system of linear equations in several variables, and use elementary techniques of elimination to solve a system of linear equations;
• examine the three cases for solutions of systems of equations – a unique solution, no solution, and infinitely many solutions – and the geometric interpretation of a solution of a system of equations with three variables.

Vector calculus:

• consider position of vectors as a function of time;
• derive the Cartesian equation of a path given as a vector equation in two dimensions including ellipses and hyperbolas;
• differentiate and integrate a vector function with respect to time;
• determine equations of motion of a particle travelling in a straight line with both constant and variable acceleration;
• apply vector calculus to motion in a plane including projectile and circular motion.

Unit 4

Unit 4 of Specialist Mathematics contains three topics: ‘Integration and applications of integration’, ‘Rates of change and differential equations’ and ‘Statistical inference’.

In Unit 4, the study of differentiation and integration of functions continues, and the calculus techniques developed in this and previous topics are applied to simple differential equations, in particular in biology and kinematics. These topics demonstrate the real-world applications of the mathematics learned throughout Specialist Mathematics.

In this unit all of the students’ previous experience working with probability and statistics is drawn together in the study of statistical inference for the distribution of sample means and confidence intervals for sample means.

By the end of this unit, students:

• understand the concepts and techniques in applications of calculus and statistical inference;
• apply reasoning skills and solve problems in applications of calculus and statistical inference;
• communicate their arguments and strategies when solving problems;
• construct proofs of results;
• interpret mathematical and statistical information and ascertain the reasonableness of their solutions to problems.

Topic 1: Integration and applications of integration

Integration techniques:

• integrate using the trigonometric identities sin² x = 1/2(1−cos 2x), cos² x=1/2(1+cos 2x) and 1+ tan² x=sec² x;
• use substitution u = g(x) to integrate expressions of the form f(g(x))g'(x);
• establish and use the formula ∫1/2dx=ln |x |+c, for x ≠ 0;
• find and use the inverse trigonometric functions: arcsine, arccosine and arctangent;
• find and use the derivative of the inverse trigonometric functions: arcsine, arccosine and arctangent;
• integrate expressions of the form and ;
• use partial fractions where necessary for integration in simple cases;
• integrate by parts.

Applications of integral calculus:

• calculate areas between curves determined by functions;
• determine volumes of solids of revolution about either axis;
• use numerical integration using technology;
• use and apply the probability density function, f(t)=λe−λt for t≥0, of the exponential random variable with parameter λ>0 and use the exponential random variables and associated probabilities and quantiles to model data and solve practical problems.

Topic 2: Rates of change and differential equations

Use implicit differentiation to determine the gradient of curves whose equations are given in implicit form.

Related rates as instances of the chain rule: =x;

• solve simple first-order differential equations of the form , differential equations of the form and, in general, differential equations of the form using separation of variables;
• examine slope (direction or gradient) fields of a first order differential equation;
• formulate differential equations including the logistic equation that will arise in, for example, chemistry, biology and economics, in situations where rates are involved.

Modelling motion:

• examine momentum, force, resultant force, action and reaction;
• consider constant and non-constant force;
• understand motion of a body under concurrent forces;
• consider and solve problems involving motion in a straight line with both constant and non-constant acceleration, including simple harmonic motion and the use of expressions , and for acceleration.

Topic 3: Statistical inference

Sample means:

• examine the concept of the sample mean X as a random variable whose value varies between samples where X is a random variable with mean μ and the standard deviation σ;
• simulate repeated random sampling, from a variety of distributions and a range of sample sizes, to illustrate properties of the distribution of across samples of a fixed size n, including its mean μ, its standard deviation (where μ and σ are the mean and standard deviation of X), and its approximate normality if n is large;
• simulate repeated random sampling, from a variety of distributions and a range of sample sizes, to illustrate the approximate standard normality of for large samples (n≥30), where s is the sample standard deviation.

Confidence intervals for means:

• understand the concept of an interval estimate for a parameter associated with a random variable;
• examine the approximate confidence interval , as an interval estimate for μ, the population mean, where z is the appropriate quantile for the standard normal distribution;
• use simulation to illustrate variations in confidence intervals between samples and to show that most but not all confidence intervals contain μ;
• use and to estimate and , to obtain approximate intervals covering desired proportions of values of a normal random variable and compare with an approximate confidence interval for μ;
• collect data and construct an approximate confidence interval to estimate a mean and to report on survey procedures and data quality.

Concepts and Techniques

A.

• demonstrates knowledge and understanding of concepts of functions, calculus, vectors and statistics in routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts;
• synthesises information to select and apply techniques in mathematics to solve routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts;
• develops, selects and applies mathematical models to routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts;
• constructs mathematical proofs in a variety of contexts using a range of techniques;
• uses digital technologies effectively to graph, display and organise mathematical information to solve a range of routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts.

B.

• demonstrates knowledge of concepts of functions, calculus, vectors and statistics in routine and non-routine problems;
• synthesises information to select and apply techniques in mathematics to solve routine and non-routine problems;
• selects and applies mathematical models to routine and non-routine problems;
• constructs mathematical proofs in a variety of contexts and adapts previously seen mathematical proofs;
• uses digital technologies appropriately to graph, display and organise mathematical information to solve a range of routine and non-routine problems.

C.

• demonstrates knowledge of concepts of functions, calculus, vectors and statistics that apply to routine problems;
• selects and applies techniques in mathematics to solve routine problems;
• applies mathematical models to routine problems;
• constructs simple mathematical proofs and adapts previously seen mathematical proofs;
• uses digital technologies to graph, display and organise mathematical information to solve routine problems.

D.

• demonstrates knowledge of concepts of functions, calculus, vectors and statistics;
• uses simple techniques in mathematics in routine problems;
• demonstrates familiarity with mathematical models;
• reproduces previously seen mathematical proofs;
• uses digital technologies to display some mathematical information in routine problems.

E.

• demonstrates limited familiarity with simple concepts of functions, calculus, vectors and statistics;
• uses simple techniques in a structured context;
• demonstrates limited familiarity with mathematical models;
• reproduces previously seen simple mathematical proofs;
• uses digital technologies for arithmetic calculations and to display limited mathematical information.

Reasoning and Communication

A.

• represents mathematical and statistical information in numerical, graphical and symbolic form in routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts;
• communicates succinct and reasoned mathematical and statistical judgments and arguments, including proofs, using appropriate language;
• interprets the solutions to routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts;
• explains the reasonableness of the results and solutions to routine and non-routine problems in a variety of contexts;
• identifies and explains the validity and limitations of models used when developing solutions to routine and non-routine problems.

B.

• represents mathematical and statistical information in numerical, graphical and symbolic form in routine and non-routine problems;
• communicates clear and reasoned mathematical and statistical judgments and arguments, including proofs, using appropriate language;
• interpret the solutions to routine and non-routine problems;
• explains the reasonableness of the results and solutions to routine and non-routine problems;
• identifies and explains limitations of models used when developing solutions to routine problems.

C.

• represents mathematical and statistical information in numerical, graphical and symbolic form in routine problems;
• communicates mathematical and statistical arguments, including simple proofs, using appropriate language;
• interprets the solutions to routine problems;
• describes the reasonableness of the results and solutions to routine problems;
• identifies limitations of models used when developing solutions to routine problems.

D.

• represents mathematical and statistical information in numerical, graphical or symbolic form in routine problems;
• communicates mathematical and statistical arguments, including previously seen proofs, using appropriate language;
• describes solutions to routine problems;
• describes the appropriateness of the results of calculations;
• identifies limitations of simple models.

E.

• represents simple mathematical and statistical information in a structured context;
• communicates simple mathematical and statistical information using appropriate language;
• identifies solutions to routine problems;
• demonstrates limited familiarity with the appropriateness of the results of calculations;
• identifies simple models.

Unit 3: Heredity and continuity of life

Heredity is an important biological principle as it explains why offspring (cells or organisms) resemble their parent cell or organism. Organisms require cellular division and differentiation for growth, development, repair and sexual reproduction. In this unit, students investigate the biochemical and cellular systems and processes involved in the transmission of genetic material to the next generation of cells and to offspring. They consider different patterns of inheritance by analysing the possible genotypes and phenotypes of offspring. Students link their observations to explanatory models that describe patterns of inheritance, and explore how the use of predictive models of inheritance enables decision making.

Students investigate the genetic basis for the theory of evolution by natural selection through constructing, using and evaluating explanatory and predictive models for gene pool diversity of populations. They explore genetic variation in gene pools, selection pressures and isolation effects in order to explain speciation and extinction events and to make predictions about future changes to populations.

Through the investigation of appropriate contexts, students explore the ways in which models and theories related to heredity and population genetics, and associated technologies, have developed over time and through interactions with social, cultural, economic and ethical considerations. They investigate the ways in which science contributes to contemporary debate about local, regional and international issues, including evaluation of risk and action for sustainability, and recognise the limitations of science to provide definitive answers in different contexts.

Students use science inquiry skills to design and conduct investigations into how different factors affect cellular processes and gene pools; they construct and use models to analyse the data gathered; and they continue to develop their skills in constructing plausible predictions and valid, reliable conclusions.

By the end of this unit, students:

• understand the cellular processes and mechanisms that ensure the continuity of life, and how these processes contribute to unity and diversity within a species;
• understand the processes and mechanisms that explain how life on Earth has persisted, changed and diversified over the last 3.5 billion years;
• understand how models and theories have developed over time; and the ways in which biological knowledge interacts with social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations in a range of contexts;
• use science inquiry skills to design, conduct, evaluate and communicate investigations into heredity, gene technology applications, and population gene pool changes;
• evaluate with reference to empirical evidence, claims about heredity processes, gene technology, and population gene pool processes, and justify evaluations;
• communicate biological understanding using qualitative and quantitative representations in appropriate modes and genres.

Science Inquiry Skills (Biology Unit 3)

Identify, research and construct questions for investigation; propose hypotheses; and predict possible outcomes.

Design investigations, including the procedure/s to be followed, the materials required, and the type and amount of primary and/or secondary data to be collected; conduct risk assessments; and consider research ethics, including animal ethics.

Conduct investigations, including the use of probabilities to predict inheritance patterns, real or virtual gel electrophoresis, and population simulations to predict population changes, safely, competently and methodically for the collection of valid and reliable data.

Represent data in meaningful and useful ways, including the use of mean, median, range and probability; organise and analyse data to identify trends, patterns and relationships; discuss the ways in which measurement error, instrumental accuracy, the nature of the procedure and the sample size may influence uncertainty and limitations in data; and select, synthesise and use evidence to make and justify conclusions.

Interpret a range of scientific and media texts, and evaluate models, processes, claims and conclusions by considering the quality of available evidence, including interpreting confidence intervals in secondary data; and use reasoning to construct scientific arguments.

Select, construct and use appropriate representations, including models of DNA replication, transcription and translation, Punnett squares and probability models of expression of a specific gene in a population, to communicate conceptual understanding, solve problems and make predictions.

Communicate to specific audiences and for specific purposes using appropriate language, nomenclature, genres and modes, including scientific reports.

Science as a Human Endeavour (Units 3 & 4)

ICT and other technologies have dramatically increased the size, accuracy and geographic and temporal scope of data sets with which scientists work.

Models and theories are contested and refined or replaced when new evidence challenges them, or when a new model or theory has greater explanatory power.

The acceptance of scientific knowledge can be influenced by the social, economic and cultural context in which it is considered.

People can use scientific knowledge to inform the monitoring, assessment and evaluation of risk.

Science can be limited in its ability to provide definitive answers to public debate; there may be insufficient reliable data available, or interpretation of the data may be open to question.

International collaboration is often required when investing in large-scale science projects or addressing issues for the Asia-Pacific region.

Scientific knowledge can be used to develop and evaluate projected economic, social and environmental impacts and to design action for sustainability.

DNA, genes and the continuity of life

Continuity of life requires the replication of genetic material and its transfer to the next generation through processes including binary fission, mitosis, meiosis and fertilisation.

DNA is a helical double-stranded molecule that occurs bound to proteins in chromosomes in the nucleus, and as unbound circular DNA in the cytosol of prokaryotes and in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells.

The structural properties of the DNA molecule, including nucleotide composition and pairing and the weak bonds between strands of DNA, allow for replication.

Genes include ‘coding’ and ‘non-coding’ DNA, and many genes contain information for protein production.

Protein synthesis involves transcription of a gene into messenger RNA in the nucleus, and translation into an amino acid sequence at the ribosome.

Proteins, including enzymes, are essential to cell structure and functioning.

The phenotypic expression of genes depends on factors controlling transcription and translation during protein synthesis, the products of other genes, and the environment.

Mutations in genes and chromosomes can result from errors in DNA replication or cell division, or from damage by physical or chemical factors in the environment.

Differential gene expression controls cell differentiation for tissue formation, as well as the structural changes that occur during growth.

Variations in the genotype of offspring arise as a result of the processes of meiosis and fertilisation, as well as a result of mutations.

Frequencies of genotypes and phenotypes of offspring can be predicted using probability models, including Punnett squares, and by taking into consideration patterns of inheritance, including the effects of dominant, autosomal and sex-linked alleles and multiple alleles, and polygenic inheritance.

DNA sequencing enables mapping of species genomes; DNA profiling identifies the unique genetic makeup of individuals.

Biotechnology can involve the use of bacterial enzymes, plasmids as vectors, and techniques including gel electrophoresis, bacterial transformations and PCR.

Continuity of life on Earth

Life has existed on Earth for approximately 3.5 billion years and has changed and diversified over time.

Comparative genomics provides evidence for the theory of evolution.

Natural selection occurs when selection pressures in the environment confer a selective advantage on a specific phenotype to enhance its survival and reproduction; this results in changes in allele frequency in the gene pool of a population.

In additional to environmental selection pressures, mutation, gene flow and genetic drift can contribute to changes in allele frequency in a population gene pool and results in micro-evolutionary change.

Mutation is the ultimate source of genetic variation as it introduces new alleles into a population.

Speciation and macro-evolutionary changes result from an accumulation of micro-evolutionary changes over time.

Differing selection pressures between geographically isolated populations may lead to allopatric speciation.

Populations with reduced genetic diversity face increased risk of extinction.

Unit 4: Maintaining the internal environment

In order to survive, organisms must be able to maintain system structure and function in the face of changes in their external and internal environments. Changes in temperature and water availability, and the incidence and spread of infectious disease, present significant challenges for organisms and require coordinated system responses. In this unit, students investigate how homeostatic response systems control organisms’ responses to environmental change – internal and external – in order to survive in a variety of environments, as long as the conditions are within their tolerance limits. Students study how the invasion of an organism’s internal environment by pathogens challenges the effective functioning of cells, tissues and body systems, and triggers a series of responses or events in the short- and long-term in order to maintain system function. They consider the factors that contribute to the spread of infectious disease and how outbreaks of infectious disease can be predicted, monitored and contained.

Through the investigation of appropriate contexts, students explore the ways in which models and theories of organisms’ and populations’ responses to environmental change have developed over time and through interactions with social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations. They investigate the ways in which science contributes to contemporary debate about local, regional and international issues, including evaluation of risk and action for sustainability, and recognise the limitations of science to provide definitive answers in different contexts.

Students use science inquiry skills to investigate a range of responses by plants and animals to changes in their environments and to invasion by pathogens; they construct and use appropriate representations to analyse the data gathered; and they continue to develop their skills in constructing plausible predictions and valid conclusions.

By the end of this unit, students:

• understand the mechanisms by which plants and animals use homeostasis to control their internal environment in a changing external environment;
• understand how plants and animals respond to the presence of pathogens, and the ways in which infection, transmission and spread of disease occur;
• understand how models and theories have developed over time, and the ways in which biological knowledge interacts with social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations in a range of contexts;
• use science inquiry skills to design, conduct, evaluate and communicate investigations into organisms’ responses to changing environmental conditions and infectious disease;
• evaluate, with reference to empirical evidence, claims about organisms’ responses to changing environmental conditions and infectious disease and justify evaluations;
• communicate biological understanding using qualitative and quantitative representations in appropriate modes and genres.

Science Inquiry Skills (Biology Unit 4)

Identify, research and construct questions for investigation; propose hypotheses; and predict possible outcomes.

Design investigations, including the procedure/s to be followed, the materials required, and the type and amount of primary and/or secondary data to be collected; conduct risk assessments; and consider research ethics, including the rights of living organisms.

Conduct investigations, including using models of homeostasis and disease transmission, safely, competently and methodically for valid and reliable collection of data.

Represent data in meaningful and useful ways, including the use of mean, median, range and probability; organise and analyse data to identify trends, patterns and relationships; discuss the ways in which measurement error, instrumental accuracy, the nature of the procedure and sample size may influence uncertainty and limitations in data; and select, synthesise and use evidence to make and justify conclusions.

Interpret a range of scientific and media texts, and evaluate models, processes, claims and conclusions by considering the quality of available evidence; and use reasoning to construct scientific arguments.

Select, construct and use appropriate representations, including diagrams and flow charts, to communicate conceptual understanding, solve problems and make predictions.

Communicate to specific audiences and for specific purposes using appropriate language, nomenclature, genres and modes, including scientific reports.

Science as a Human Endeavour (Units 3 & 4)

ICT and other technologies have dramatically increased the size, accuracy and geographic and temporal scope of data sets with which scientists work.

Models and theories are contested and refined or replaced when new evidence challenges them, or when a new model or theory has greater explanatory power.

The acceptance of scientific knowledge can be influenced by the social, economic and cultural context in which it is considered.

People can use scientific knowledge to inform the monitoring, assessment and evaluation of risk.

Science can be limited in its ability to provide definitive answers to public debate; there may be insufficient reliable data available, or interpretation of the data may be open to question.

International collaboration is often required when investing in large-scale science projects or addressing issues for the Asia-Pacific region.

Scientific knowledge can be used to develop and evaluate projected economic, social and environmental impacts and to design action for sustainability.

Homeostasis

Homeostasis involves a stimulus-response model in which change in external or internal environmental conditions is detected and appropriate responses occur via negative feedback; in vertebrates, receptors and effectors are linked via a control centre by nervous and/or hormonal pathways.

Changes in an organism’s metabolic activity, in addition to structural features and changes in physiological processes and behaviour, enable the organism to maintain its internal environment within tolerance limits.

Neural pathways consist of cells that transport nerve impulses from sensory receptors to neurons and on to effectors; the passage of nerve impulses involves transmission of an action potential along a nerve axon and synaptic transmission by neurotransmitters and signal transduction.

Hormones alter the metabolism of target cells, tissues or organs by increasing or decreasing their activity; in animals, most hormones are produced in endocrine glands as a result of nervous or chemical stimulation, and travel via the circulatory or lymph system to the target cells, tissues or organs.

Endothermic animals have varying thermoregulatory mechanisms that involve structural features, behavioural responses and physiological and homeostatic mechanisms to control heat exchange and metabolic activity.

Animals, whether osmoregulators or osmoconformers, and plants, have various mechanisms to maintain water balance that involve structural features, and behavioural, physiological and homeostatic responses.

Infectious disease

Infectious disease differs from other disease (for example, genetic and lifestyle diseases) in that it is caused by invasion by a pathogen and can be transmitted from one host to another.

Pathogens include prions, viruses, bacteria, fungi, protists and parasites.

Pathogens have adaptations that facilitate their entry into cells and tissues and their transmission between hosts; transmission occurs by various mechanisms including through direct contact, contact with body fluids, and via contaminated food, water or disease-specific vectors.

When a pathogen enters a host, it causes physical or chemical changes (for example, the introduction of foreign chemicals via the surface of the pathogen, or the production of toxins) in the cells or tissues; these changes stimulate the host immune responses.

All plants and animals have innate (general) immune responses to the presence of pathogens; vertebrates also have adaptive immune responses.

Innate responses in animals target pathogens, including through the inflammation response, which involves the actions of phagocytes, defensins and the complement system.

In vertebrates, adaptive responses to specific antigens include the production of humoral immunity through the production of antibodies by B lymphocytes, and the provision of cell-mediated immunity by T lymphocytes; in both cases memory cells are produced that confirm long-term immunity to the specific antigen.

In vertebrates, immunity may be passive (for example, antibodies gained via the placenta or via antibody serum injection) or active (for example, acquired through actions of the immune system as a result of natural exposure to a pathogen or through the use of vaccines).

Transmission and spread of disease is facilitated by regional and global movement of organisms.

The spread of a specific disease involves a wide range of interrelated factors (for example, persistence of the pathogen within hosts, the transmission mechanism, the proportion of the population that are immune or have been immunised, and the mobility of individuals of the affected population); analysis of these factors can enable prediction of the potential for an outbreak, as well as evaluation of strategies to control the spread of disease.

Biology – Unit 3 and Unit 4

A.

Biology concepts, models and applications

• analyses how system components function and are interrelated across a range of scales to enable continuity of individuals, populations and species;
• analyses how the function and interrelationships of system components are affected by external factors across a range of scales, and how the system responds over time;
• explains the theories and model/s used to explain the system, the supporting evidence, and their limitations and assumption;
• applies theories and models of systems and processes to explain phenomena, critically analyse complex problems, and make reasoned, plausible predictions in unfamiliar contexts.

Context

• analyses the roles of collaboration, debate and review, and technologies, in the development of biological theories and models;
• evaluates how biological science has been used in concert with other sciences to meet diverse needs and to inform decision making; and how these applications are influenced by interacting social, economic and ethical factors.

Biology Inquiry Skills

• designs, conducts and improves safe, ethical investigations that efficiently collect valid, reliable data in response to a complex question or problem;
• analyses data sets to explain causal and correlational relationships, the reliability of the data, and sources of error;
• justifies their selection of data as evidence, analyses evidence with reference to models and/or theories, and develops evidence-based conclusions that identify limitations;
• evaluates processes and claims, and provides an evidence-based critique and discussion of improvements or alternatives;
• selects, constructs and uses appropriate representations to describe complex relationships and to solve complex and unfamiliar problems;
• communicates effectively and accurately in a range of modes, styles and genres for specific audiences and purposes.

B.

Biology concepts, models and applications

• explains how system components are interrelated and how they function to enable continuity of individuals, populations and species;
• explains how the function and interrelationships of system components are affected by external factors, and how the system responds;
• describes the theories and model/s used to explain the system, some supporting evidence, and their limitations;
• applies theories and models of systems and processes to explain phenomena, analyse problems, and make plausible predictions in unfamiliar contexts.

Context

• explains the role of collaboration, debate and review, and technologies, in the development of biological theories and models;
• explains how biological science has been used to meet diverse needs and to inform decision making; and how these applications are influenced by social, economic and ethical factors.

Biology Inquiry Skills

• designs, conducts and improves safe, ethical investigations that collect valid, reliable data in response to a question or problem;
• analyses data sets to identify causal and correlational relationships, anomalies, and sources of error;
• selects appropriate data as evidence, interprets evidence with reference to models and/or theories, and provides evidence for conclusions;
• evaluates processes and claims, provides a critique with reference to evidence, and identifies possible improvements or alternatives;
• selects, constructs and uses appropriate representations to describe complex relationships and to solve unfamiliar problems;
• communicates clearly and accurately in a range of modes, styles and genres for specific audiences and purposes.

C.

Biology concepts, models and applications

• describes how system components function and the processes that enable continuity of the individual, population and species;
• describes how system components or processes are affected by external factors, and how the system responds;
• describes key aspects of a theory or model used to explain system processes, and the phenomena to which they can be applied;
• applies theories or models of systems and processes to explain phenomena, interpret problems, and make plausible predictions in some unfamiliar contexts.

Context

• describes the role of collaboration and review, and technologies, in the development of biological theories or models;
• discusses how biological science has been used to meet needs and to inform decision making, and some social, economic or ethical implications of these applications.

Biology Inquiry Skills

• designs and conducts safe, ethical investigations that collect valid data in response to a question or problem;
• analyses data to identify relationships, anomalies, and sources of error;
• selects data to demonstrate relationships linked to biological knowledge, and provides conclusions based on data;
• evaluates processes and claims, and suggests improvements or alternatives;
• selects, constructs and uses appropriate representations to describe relationships and solve problems;
• communicates clearly in a range of modes, styles and genres for specific purposes.

D.

Biology concepts, models and applications

• identifies system components that contribute to the survival of an organism, population or species;
• describes changes to the system, the external factors that caused those changes, and some system responses;
• describes key aspects of a theory or model used to explain a system process;
• describes phenomena, interprets simple problems, and makes predictions in familiar contexts.

Context

• describes the roles of communication and new evidence in developing biological knowledge;
• describes ways in which biological science has been used in society to meet needs, and identifies some implications of these applications.

Biology Inquiry Skills

• plans and conducts safe, ethical investigations to collect data in response to a question or problem;
• analyses data to identify trends and anomalies;
• selects data to demonstrate trends, and presents simple conclusions based on data;
• considers processes and claims from a personal perspective;
• constructs and uses simple representations to describe relationships and solve simple problems;
• communicates in a range of modes and genres.

E.

Biology concepts, models and applications

• identifies some parts of the system that contribute to the survival of an organism, population or species;
• describes a change to the system, and an external factor that caused that change;
• identifies aspects of a theory or model related to a system process;
• describes phenomena and makes simple predictions in familiar contexts.

Context

• identifies that biological knowledge has changed over time;
• identifies ways in which biological science has been used in society to meet needs.

Biology Inquiry Skills

• follows a procedure to conduct safe, ethical investigations to collect data;
• identifies trends in data;
• selects data to demonstrate trends;
• considers claims from a personal perspective;
• constructs and uses simple representations to describe phenomena;
• communicates in a range of modes.

Unit 3: Equilibrium, acids and redox reactions

The idea of reversibility of reaction is vital in a variety of chemical systems at different scales, ranging from the processes that release carbon dioxide into our atmosphere to the reactions of ions within individual cells in our bodies. Processes that are reversible will respond to a range of factors and can achieve a state of dynamic equilibrium. In this unit, students investigate acid-base equilibrium systems and their applications. They use contemporary models to explain the nature of acids and bases, and their properties and uses. This understanding enables further exploration of the varying strengths of acids and bases. Students investigate the principles of oxidation and reduction reactions and the production of electricity from electrochemical cells.

Through the investigation of appropriate contexts, students explore the ways in which models and theories related to acid-base and redox reactions, and their applications, have developed over time and through interactions with social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations. They explore the ways in which chemistry contributes to contemporary debate in industrial and environmental contexts, including the use of energy, evaluation of risk and action for sustainability, and they recognise the limitations of science in providing definitive answers in different contexts.

Students use science inquiry skills to investigate the principles of dynamic chemical equilibrium and how these can be applied to chemical processes and systems. They investigate a range of electrochemical cells, including the choice of materials used and the voltage produced by these cells. Students use the pH scale to assist in making judgments and predictions about the extent of dissociation of acids and bases and about the concentrations of ions in an aqueous solution.

By the end of this unit, students:

• understand the characteristics of equilibrium systems, and explain and predict how they are affected by changes to temperature, concentration and pressure;
• understand the difference between the strength and concentration of acids, and relate this to the principles of chemical equilibrium;
• understand how redox reactions, galvanic and electrolytic cells are modelled in terms of electron transfer;
• understand how models and theories have developed over time and the ways in which chemical knowledge interacts with social, economic, cultural and political considerations in a range of contexts;
• use science inquiry skills to design, conduct, evaluate and communicate investigations into the properties of acids and bases, redox reactions and electrochemical cells, including volumetric analysis;
• evaluate, with reference to empirical evidence, claims about equilibrium systems and justify evaluations;
• communicate, predict and explain chemical phenomena using qualitative and quantitative representations in appropriate modes and genres.

Science Inquiry Skills (Chemistry Unit 3)

Identify, research, construct and refine questions for investigation; propose hypotheses; and predict possible outcomes.

Design investigations, including the procedure/s to be followed, the materials required, and the type and amount of primary and/or secondary data to be collected; conduct risk assessments; and consider research ethics.

Conduct investigations, including using volumetric analysis techniques and constructing electrochemical cells, safely, competently and methodically for the collection of valid and reliable data.

Represent data in meaningful and useful ways, including using appropriate graphic representations and correct units and symbols; organise and process data to identify trends, patterns and relationships; identify and distinguish between random and systematic errors, and estimate their effect on measured results; discuss how the nature of the procedure and the sample size may influence uncertainty and limitations in data; and select, synthesise and use evidence to make and justify conclusions.

Interpret a range of scientific texts, and evaluate processes, claims and conclusions by considering the quality of available evidence, including confidence intervals in secondary data; and use reasoning to construct scientific arguments.

Select, construct and use appropriate representations, including half-equations, balanced chemical equations, equilibrium constants and expressions, pH, oxidation numbers, standard electrode potentials and cell diagrams, to communicate conceptual understanding, solve problems and make predictions.

Select and use appropriate mathematical representations to solve problems and make predictions, including calculating cell potentials under standard conditions, using the mole concept to calculate moles, mass, volume and concentrations from volumetric analysis data, determining the yield of incomplete reactions, and calculating the pH of solutions of strong acids and bases.

Communicate to specific audiences and for specific purposes using appropriate language, nomenclature, genres and modes, including scientific reports.

Science as a Human Endeavour (Units 3 & 4)

ICT and other technologies have dramatically increased the size, accuracy and geographic and temporal scope of data sets with which scientists work.

Models and theories are contested and refined or replaced when new evidence challenges them, or when a new model or theory has greater explanatory power.

The acceptance of scientific knowledge can be influenced by the social, economic, and cultural context in which it is considered.

People can use scientific knowledge to inform the monitoring, assessment and evaluation of risk.

Science can be limited in its ability to provide definitive answers to public debate; there may be insufficient reliable data available, or interpretation of the data may be open to question.

International collaboration is often required when investing in large-scale science projects or addressing issues for the Asia-Pacific region.

Scientific knowledge can be used to develop and evaluate projected economic, social and environmental impacts and to design action for sustainability.

Chemical equilibrium systems

Chemical systems may be open or closed and include physical changes and chemical reactions which can result in observable changes to the system.

All physical changes are reversible, whereas only some chemical reactions are reversible.

Over time, physical changes and reversible chemical reactions reach a state of dynamic equilibrium in a closed system, with the relative concentrations of products and reactants defining the position of equilibrium.

The reversibility of chemical reactions can be explained by considering the activation energies of the forward and reverse reactions.

The effect of changes of temperature on chemical systems at equilibrium can be explained by considering the enthalpy changes for the forward and reverse reactions.

The effect of changes of concentration and pressure on chemical systems at equilibrium can be explained and predicted by applying collision theory to the forward and reverse reactions.

The effects of changes of temperature, concentration of chemicals and pressure on equilibrium systems can be predicted using Le Chatelier’s Principle.

Equilibrium position can be predicted qualitatively using equilibrium constants.

Acids are substances that can act as proton (hydrogen ion) donors and can be classified as monoprotic or polyprotic depending on the number of protons donated by each molecule of the acid.

The strength of acids is explained by the degree of ionisation at equilibrium in aqueous solution, which can be represented with chemical equations and equilibrium constants (Ka).

The relationship between acids and bases in equilibrium systems can be explained using the Brønsted-Lowry model and represented using chemical equations that illustrate the transfer of hydrogen ions.

The pH scale is a logarithmic scale and the pH of a solution can be calculated from the concentration of hydrogen ions; Kw can be used to calculate the concentration of hydrogen ions from the concentration of hydroxide ions in a solution.

Acid-base indicators are weak acids or bases where the acidic form is of a different colour to the basic form.

Volumetric analysis methods involving acid-base reactions rely on the identification of an equivalence point by measuring the associated change in pH, using chemical indicators or pH meters, to reveal an observable end point.

Oxidation and reduction

A range of reactions, including displacement reactions of metals, combustion, corrosion, and electrochemical processes, can be modelled as redox reactions involving oxidation of one substance and reduction of another substance.

Oxidation can be modelled as the loss of electrons from a chemical species, and reduction can be modelled as the gain of electrons by a chemical species; these processes can be represented using half-equations.

The ability of an atom to gain or lose electrons can be explained with reference to valence electrons, consideration of energy, and the overall stability of the atom, and can be predicted from the atom’s position in the periodic table.

The relative strength of oxidising and reducing agents can be determined by comparing standard electrode potentials.

Electrochemical cells, including galvanic and electrolytic cells, consist of oxidation and reduction half-reactions connected via an external circuit that allows electrons to move from the anode (oxidation reaction) to the cathode (reduction reaction).

Galvanic cells, including fuel cells, generate an electrical potential difference from a spontaneous redox reaction; they can be represented as cell diagrams including anode and cathode half-equations.

Fuel cells can use metal nanoparticles as catalysts to improve the efficiency of energy production.

Cell potentials at standard conditions can be calculated from standard electrode potentials; these values can be used to compare cells constructed from different materials.

Electrolytic cells use an external electrical potential difference to provide the energy to allow a non-spontaneous redox reaction to occur, and can be used in small-scale and industrial situations.

Unit 4: Structure, synthesis and design

Current and future applications of chemistry include the development of specialised techniques to create, or synthesise, new substances to meet the specific needs of society, including pharmaceuticals, fuels, polymers and nanomaterials. In this unit, students focus on the principles and application of chemical synthesis, particularly in organic chemistry. This involves considering where and how functional groups can be incorporated into already existing carbon compounds in order to generate new substances with properties that enable them to be used in a range of contexts.

Through the investigation of appropriate contexts, students explore the ways in which models and theories related to chemical synthesis, structure and design, and associated applications, have developed over time and through interactions with social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations. They explore the ways in which chemistry contributes to contemporary debate regarding current and future uses of local, regional and international resources, evaluation of risk and action for sustainability, and they recognise the limitations of science in providing definitive answers in different contexts.

Students use science inquiry skills to investigate the principles and application of chemical structure, synthesis and design. They select and use data from instrumental analysis to determine the identity and structure of a range of organic materials. They make predictions based on knowledge of types of chemical reactions, and investigate chemical reactions qualitatively and quantitatively.

By the end of this unit, students:

• understand how the presence of functional groups and the molecular structure of organic compounds are related to their properties;
• understand addition, condensation and oxidation reactions, and predict the products of these reactions;
• understand how knowledge of chemical systems is used to design synthesis processes, and how data from analytical techniques provides information about chemical structure;
• understand how models and theories have developed over time and the ways in which chemical knowledge interacts with social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations in a range of contexts;
• use science inquiry skills to design, conduct, evaluate and communicate investigations into reactions and the identification of organic compounds, including analysis of secondary data derived from chemical analysis;
• evaluate, with reference to empirical evidence, claims about organic synthesis and chemical design, and justify evaluations;
• communicate, predict and explain chemical phenomena using qualitative and quantitative representations in appropriate modes and genres.

Science Inquiry Skills (Chemistry Unit 4)

Identify, research, construct and refine questions for investigation; propose hypotheses; and predict possible outcomes.

Design investigations, including the procedure/s to be followed, the materials required, and the type and amount of primary and/or secondary data to be collected; conduct risk assessments; and consider research ethics.

Conduct investigations, including using organic synthesis methods and collating data from chemical analyses, safely, competently and methodically for the collection of valid and reliable data.

Represent data in meaningful and useful ways, including using appropriate graphic representations and correct units and symbols; organise and analyse data to identify patterns and relationships; identify and distinguish between random and systematic errors, and estimate their effect on measured results; discuss how the nature of the procedure and the sample size may influence uncertainty and limitations in data; and select, synthesise and use evidence from a range of sources to make and justify conclusions.

Interpret a range of scientific and media texts, and evaluate processes, claims and conclusions by considering the quality of available evidence; and use reasoning to construct scientific arguments.

Select, construct and use appropriate representations, including physical, virtual and graphical models of primary, secondary and tertiary structures, structural formulas, chemical equations, systematic nomenclature (using IUPAC conventions) and spectra, to communicate conceptual understanding, solve problems and make predictions.

Select and use appropriate mathematical representations to solve problems and make predictions, including using the mole concept to calculate quantities in chemical reactions, including multi-step reactions, and the percentage yield of synthesis reactions.

Communicate to specific audiences and for specific purposes using appropriate language, nomenclature, genres and modes, including scientific reports.

Science as a Human Endeavour (Units 3 & 4)

ICT and other technologies have dramatically increased the size, accuracy and geographic and temporal scope of data sets with which scientists work.

Models and theories are contested and refined or replaced when new evidence challenges them, or when a new model or theory has greater explanatory power.

The acceptance of scientific knowledge can be influenced by the social, economic and cultural context in which it is considered.

People can use scientific knowledge to inform the monitoring, assessment and evaluation of risk.

Science can be limited in its ability to provide definitive answers to public debate; there may be insufficient reliable data available, or interpretation of the data may be open to question.

International collaboration is often required when investing in large-scale science projects or addressing issues for the Asia-Pacific region.

Scientific knowledge can be used to develop and evaluate projected economic, social and environmental impacts and to design action for sustainability.

Properties and structure of organic materials

Organic molecules have a hydrocarbon skeleton and can contain functional groups, including alcohols, carboxylic acids, esters, amines and amides.

Each class of organic compounds displays characteristic chemical properties and undergoes specific reactions based on the functional groups present; these reactions, including acid-base and oxidation reactions, can be used to identify the class of the organic compound.

Organic materials including proteins, carbohydrates and synthetic polymers display properties including strength, density and biodegradability that can be explained by considering the primary, secondary or tertiary structures of the material.

Data from analytical techniques, including mass spectrometry, x-ray crystallography and infrared spectroscopy, can be used to determine the structure of organic molecules, often using evidence from more than one technique.

Chemical synthesis and design

Chemical synthesis involves the selection of particular reagents to form a product with specific properties (for example, pharmaceuticals, fuels, cosmetics, cleaning products).

Designing chemical synthesis processes involves constructing reaction pathways that may include more than one chemical reaction.

Designing chemical synthesis processes includes identifying reagents and reaction conditions in order to maximise yield and purity of product.

The yield of a chemical synthesis reaction can be calculated by comparing stoichiometric quantities with actual quantities.

Green chemistry principles include the design of chemical synthesis processes that use renewable raw materials, limit the use of potentially harmful solvents and minimise the amount of unwanted products.

Organic molecules, including polymers, can be synthesised using addition and condensation reactions.

Fuels (for example, biodiesel, ethanol, hydrogen) can be synthesised from organic or inorganic sources using a range of chemical reactions including addition, oxidation and esterification.

Molecular manufacturing processes, including protein synthesis, involve the positioning of molecules to facilitate a specific chemical reaction; such methods have the potential to synthesise specialised products (for example, carbon nanotubes, nanorobots, chemical sensors used in medicine).

Chemistry – Unit 3 and Unit 4

A.

Chemistry concepts, models and applications

• analyses how a range of interrelated factors affect atomic and molecular interactions and change the structure, properties and dynamics of chemical systems;
• analyses how interactions between matter and energy in complex chemical systems can be designed, monitored and controlled to produce desired outcomes;
• explains the theories and model/s used to explain the system, the supporting evidence, and their limitations and assumptions;
• applies theories and models of systems and processes to explain phenomena, critically analyse complex problems, and make reasoned, plausible predictions in unfamiliar contexts.

Context

• analyses the roles of collaboration, debate and review, and technologies, in the development of chemical science theories and models.
• evaluates how chemical science has been used in concert with other sciences to meet diverse needs and inform decision making, and how these applications are influenced by interacting social, economic and ethical factors.

Chemistry inquiry skills

• designs, conducts and improves safe, ethical investigations that efficiently collect valid, reliable data in response to a complex question or problem;
• analyses data sets to explain causal and correlational relationships, the reliability of the data, and sources of error;
• justifies their selection of data as evidence, analyses evidence with reference to models and/or theories, and develops evidence-based conclusions that identify limitations;
• evaluates processes and claims, and provides an evidence-based critique and discussion of improvements or alternatives;
• selects, constructs and uses appropriate representations to describe complex relationships and solve complex and unfamiliar problems;
• communicates effectively and accurately in a range of modes, styles and genres for specific audiences and purposes.

B.

Chemistry concepts, models and applications

• explains how a range of interrelated factors change the structure, properties and dynamics of chemical systems;
• explains how interactions between matter and energy in chemical systems can be designed, monitored and controlled to produce desired outcomes;
• describes the theories and model/s used to explain the system, some supporting evidence, and their limitations;
• applies theories and models of systems and processes to explain phenomena, analyse problems, and make plausible predictions in unfamiliar contexts.

Context

• explains the roles of collaboration, debate and review, and technologies, in the development of chemical science theories and models;
• explains how chemical science has been used to meet diverse needs and inform decision making, and how these applications are influenced by social, economic and ethical factors.

Chemistry inquiry skills

• designs, conducts and improves safe, ethical investigations that collect valid, reliable data in response to a question or problem;
• analyses data sets to identify causal and correlational relationships, anomalies, and sources of error;
• selects appropriate data as evidence, interprets evidence with reference to models and/or theories, and provides evidence for conclusions;
• evaluates processes and claims, provides a critique with reference to evidence, and identifies possible improvements or alternatives;
• selects, constructs and uses appropriate representations to describe complex relationships and solve unfamiliar problems;
• communicates clearly and accurately in a range of modes, styles and genres for specific audiences and purposes.

C.

Chemistry concepts, models and applications

• explains how a range of factors change the structure, properties and dynamics of chemical systems;
• describes how chemical systems are controlled and monitored to produce desired outcomes;
• describes key aspects of a theory or model used to explain system processes, and the phenomena to which those processes can be applied;
• applies theories or models of systems and processes to explain phenomena, interpret problems, and make plausible predictions in some unfamiliar contexts.

Context

• describes the roles of collaboration and review, and technologies, in the development of chemical science theories or models;
• discusses how chemical science has been used to meet needs and inform decision making, and some social, economic or ethical implications of these applications.

Chemistry inquiry skills

• designs and conducts safe, ethical investigations that collect valid data in response to a question or problem;
• analyses data to identify relationships, anomalies, and sources of error;
• selects data to demonstrate relationships linked to chemical science knowledge, and provides conclusions based on data;
• evaluates processes and claims, and suggests improvements or alternatives;
• selects , constructs and uses appropriate representations to describe relationships and solve problems;
• communicates clearly in a range of modes, styles and genres for specific purposes.

D.

Chemistry concepts, models and applications

• describes how some factors affect the properties of chemical systems;
• describes how chemical systems are manipulated to produce desired outcomes;
• describes key aspects of a theory or model used to explain a system process;
• describes phenomena, interprets simple problems, and makes predictions in familiar contexts.

Context

• describes the roles of communication and new evidence in developing chemical science knowledge;
• describes ways in which chemical science has been used in society to meet needs, and identifies some implications of these applications.

Chemistry inquiry skills

• plans and conducts safe, ethical investigations to collect data in response to a question or problem;
• analyses data to identify trends and anomalies;
• selects data to demonstrate trends, and presents simple conclusions based on data;
• considers processes and claims from a personal perspective;
• constructs and uses simple representations to describe relationships and solve simple problems;
• communicates in a range of modes and genres.

E.

Chemistry concepts, models and applications

• describes changes to chemical systems;
• describes how chemical systems are used to produce desired outcomes;
• identifies aspects of a theory or model related to a system process;
• describes phenomena and makes simple predictions in familiar contexts.

Context

• identifies that chemical science knowledge has changed over time;
• identifies ways in which chemical science has been used in society to meet needs.

Chemistry inquiry skills

• follows a procedure to conduct safe, ethical investigations to collect data;
• identifies trends in data;
• selects data to demonstrate trends;
• considers claims from a personal perspective;
• constructs and uses simple representations to describe phenomena;
• communicates in a range of modes.

Unit 3: Living on Earth – extracting, using and managing Earth resources

Earth resources are required to sustain life and provide infrastructure for living (for example, food, shelter, medicines, transport, and communication), driving ongoing demand for biotic, mineral and energy resources. In this unit, students explore renewable and non-renewable resources and analyse the effects that resource extraction, use and consumption and associated waste removal have on Earth systems and human communities.

Students examine the occurrence of non-renewable mineral and energy resources and review how an understanding of Earth and environmental science processes guides resource exploration and extraction. They investigate how the rate of extraction and other environmental factors impact on the quality and availability of renewable resources, including water, energy resources and biota, and the importance of monitoring and modelling to manage these resources at local, regional and global scales. Students learn about ecosystem services and how natural and human-mediated changes of the biosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and geosphere, including the pedosphere, influence resource availability and sustainable management.

Through the investigation of appropriate contexts, students explore the ways in which models and theories related to resource extraction, use and management have developed over time and through interactions with social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations. They investigate the ways in which science contributes to contemporary debate regarding local, regional and international resource use, evaluation of risk and action for sustainability, and recognise the limitations of science in providing definitive answers in different contexts.

Students use science inquiry skills to collect, analyse and interpret data relating to the extraction, use, consumption and waste management of renewable and non-renewable resources. They critically analyse the range of factors that determine management of renewable and non-renewable resources.

By the end of this unit, students:

• understand the difference between renewable and non-renewable Earth resources and how their extraction, use, consumption and disposal impact Earth systems;
• understand how renewable resources can be sustainably extracted, used and consumed at local, regional and global scales;
• understand how models and theories have developed over time; and the ways in which Earth and environmental science knowledge interacts with social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations in a range of contexts;
• use science inquiry skills to collect, analyse and communicate primary and secondary data on resource extraction and related impacts on Earth systems;
• evaluate, with reference to empirical evidence, claims about resource extraction and related impacts on Earth systems and justify evaluations;
• communicate Earth and environmental understanding using qualitative and quantitative representations in appropriate modes and genres.

Science Inquiry Skills (Earth and Environmental Science Unit 3)

Identify, research and construct questions for investigation; propose hypotheses; and predict possible outcomes.

Design investigations including the procedure/s to be followed, the information required and the type and amount of primary and/or secondary data to be collected; conduct risk assessments; and consider research ethics.

Conduct investigations, including using spatial analysis to complement map and field location techniques and environmental sampling procedures, safely, competently and methodically for the collection of valid and reliable data.

Represent data in meaningful and useful ways; organise and analyse data to identify trends, patterns and relationships; discuss the ways in which measurement error and instrumental accuracy and the nature of the procedure and sample size may influence uncertainty and limitations in data; and select, synthesise and use evidence to make and justify conclusions.

Interpret a range of scientific and media texts and evaluate processes, claims and conclusions by considering the quality of available evidence, including interpreting confidence intervals in secondary data; use reasoning to construct scientific arguments.

Select, construct and use appropriate representations, including maps and other spatial representations, to communicate conceptual understanding, solve problems and make predictions.

Communicate to specific audiences and for specific purposes using appropriate language, genres and modes, including compilations of field data and research reports.

Science as a Human Endeavour (Units 3 & 4)

ICT and other technologies have dramatically increased the size, accuracy and geographic and temporal scope of data sets with which scientists work.

Models and theories are contested and refined or replaced when new evidence challenges them, or when a new model or theory has greater explanatory power.

The acceptance of scientific knowledge can be influenced by the social, economic and cultural context in which it is considered.

People can use scientific knowledge to inform the monitoring, assessment and evaluation of risk.

Science can be limited in its ability to provide definitive answers to public debate; there may be insufficient reliable data available, or interpretation of the data may be open to question.

International collaboration is often required when investing in large-scale science projects or addressing issues for the Asia-Pacific region.

Scientific knowledge can be used to develop and evaluate projected economic, social and environmental impacts and to design action for sustainability.

Use of non-renewable Earth resources

Non-renewable mineral and energy resources are formed over geological time scales so are not readily replenished.

The location of non-renewable mineral and energy resources, including fossil fuels, iron ore and gold, is related to their geological setting (for example, sedimentary basins, igneous terrains).

Mineral and energy resources are discovered using a variety of remote sensing techniques (for example, satellite images, aerial photographs and geophysical datasets) and direct sampling techniques (for example, drilling, core sampling, soil and rock sampling) to identify the spatial extent of the deposit and quality of the resource.

The type, volume and location of mineral and energy resources influences the methods of extraction (for example, underground, open pit, onshore and offshore drilling and completion).

Extraction of mineral and energy resources influences interactions between the abiotic and biotic components of ecosystems, including hydrologic systems.

Use of renewable Earth resources

Renewable resources are those that are typically replenished at time scales of years to decades and include harvestable resources (for example, water, biota and some energy resources) and services (for example, ecosystem services).

Ecosystems provide a range of renewable resources, including provisioning services (for example, food, water, pharmaceuticals), regulating services (for example, carbon sequestration, climate control), supporting services (for example, soil formation, nutrient and water cycling, air and water purification) and cultural services (for example, aesthetics, knowledge systems).

The abundance of a renewable resource and how readily it can be replenished influence the rate at which it can be sustainably used at local, regional and global scales.

The cost-effective use of renewable energy resources is constrained by the efficiency of available technologies to collect, store and transfer the energy.

The availability and quality of fresh water can be influenced by human activities (for example, urbanisation, over-extraction, pollution) and natural processes (for example, siltation, drought, algal blooms) at local and regional scales.

Any human activities that affect ecosystems (for example, species removal, habitat destruction, pest introduction, dryland salinity) can directly or indirectly reduce populations to beneath the threshold of population viability at local, regional and global scales and impact ecosystem services.

Overharvesting can directly reduce populations of biota to beneath the threshold of population viability; the concept of maximum sustainable yield aims to enable sustainable harvesting.

Producing, harvesting, transporting and processing of resources for consumption, and assimilating the associated wastes, involves the use of resources; the concept of an ‘ecological footprint’ is used to measure the magnitude of this demand.

Unit 4: The changing Earth – the cause and impact of Earth hazards

Earth hazards occur over a range of time scales and have significant impacts on Earth systems across a wide range of spatial scales. Investigation of naturally occurring and human-influenced Earth hazards enables prediction of their impacts, and the development of management and mitigation strategies. In this unit, students examine the cause and effects of naturally occurring Earth hazards including volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and tsunami. They examine ways in which human activities can contribute to the frequency, magnitude and intensity of Earth hazards such as fire and drought. This unit focuses on the timescales at which the effects of natural and human-induced change are apparent and the ways in which scientific data are used to provide strategic direction for the mitigation of Earth hazards and environmental management decisions.

Students review the scientific evidence for climate change models, including the examination of evidence from the geological record, and explore the tensions associated with differing interpretations of the same evidence. They consider the reliability of these models for predicting climate change, and the implications of future climate change events, including changing weather patterns, globally and in Australia (for example, changes in flooding patterns or aridity, and changes to vegetation distribution, river structure and groundwater recharge).

Through the investigation of appropriate contexts, students explore the ways in which models and theories related to monitoring and managing Earth hazards and climate change have developed over time and through interactions with social, economic, cultural, and ethical considerations. They investigate the ways in which science contributes to contemporary debate regarding local, regional and international management of Earth hazards, evaluation of risk and action for sustainability, and recognise the limitations of science in providing definitive answers in different contexts.

Students use inquiry skills to collect, analyse and interpret data relating to the cause and impact of Earth hazards. They critically analyse the range of factors that influence the magnitude, frequency, intensity and management of Earth hazards at local, regional and global levels.

By the end of this unit, students:

• understand the causes of Earth hazards and the ways in which they impact, and are impacted by, Earth systems;
• understand how environmental change is modelled, and how the reliability of these models influences predictions of future events and changes;
• understand how models and theories have developed over time; and the ways in which Earth and environmental science knowledge interacts with social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations in a range of contexts;
• use science inquiry skills to collect, analyse and communicate primary and secondary data on Earth hazards and related impacts on Earth systems;
• evaluate, with reference to empirical evidence, claims about Earth hazards and related impacts on Earth systems and justify evaluations;
• communicate Earth and environmental understanding using qualitative and quantitative representations in appropriate modes and genres.

Science Inquiry Skills (Earth and Environmental Science Unit 4)

Identify, research and construct questions for investigation, propose hypotheses and predict possible outcomes.

Design investigations including the procedure/s to be followed, the information required and the type and amount of primary and/or secondary data to be collected; conduct risk assessments; and consider research ethics.

Conduct investigations, including using spatial analysis to complement map and field location techniques, environmental sampling procedures and field metering equipment, safely, competently and methodically for the collection of valid and reliable data.

Represent data in meaningful and useful ways; organise and analyse data to identify trends, patterns and relationships; discuss the ways in which measurement error and instrumental accuracy, the nature of the procedure and sample size may influence uncertainty and limitations in data; and select, synthesise and use evidence to make and justify conclusions.

Interpret a range of scientific and media texts and evaluate processes, claims and conclusions by considering the quality of available evidence, including interpreting confidence intervals in secondary data; use reasoning to construct scientific arguments.

Select, construct and use appropriate representations, including maps and other spatial representations, to communicate conceptual understanding, make predictions and solve problems.

Communicate to specific audiences and for specific purposes using appropriate language, genres and modes, including compilations of field data and research reports.

Science as a Human Endeavour (Units 3 & 4)

ICT and other technologies have dramatically increased the size, accuracy and geographic and temporal scope of data sets with which scientists work.

Models and theories are contested and refined or replaced when new evidence challenges them, or when a new model or theory has greater explanatory power.

The acceptance of scientific knowledge can be influenced by the social, economic and cultural context in which it is considered.

People can use scientific knowledge to inform the monitoring, assessment and evaluation of risk.

Science can be limited in its ability to provide definitive answers to public debate; there may be insufficient reliable data available, or interpretation of the data may be open to question.

International collaboration is often required when investing in large scale science projects or addressing issues for the Asia-Pacific region.

Scientific knowledge can be used to develop and evaluate projected economic, social and environmental impacts and to design action for sustainability.

The cause and impact of Earth hazards

Earth hazards result from the interactions of Earth systems and can threaten life, health, property, or the environment; their occurrence may not be prevented but their effect can be mitigated.

Plate tectonic processes generate earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and tsunamis; the occurrence of these events affects other Earth processes and interactions (for example, ash clouds influence global weather).

Monitoring and analysis of data, including earthquake location and frequency data and ground motion monitoring, allows the mapping of potentially hazardous zones, and contributes to the future prediction of the location and probability of repeat occurrences of hazardous Earth events, including volcanic eruptions, earthquakes and tsunamis.

Major weather systems generate cyclones, flood events and droughts; the occurrence of these events affects other Earth processes and interactions (for example, habitat destruction, ecosystem regeneration).

Human activities, including land clearing, can contribute to the frequency, magnitude and intensity of some natural hazards (for example, drought, flood, bushfire, landslides) at local and regional scales.

The impact of natural hazards on organisms, including humans, and ecosystems depends on the location, magnitude and intensity of the hazard, and the configuration of Earth materials influencing the hazard (for example, biomass, substrate).

The cause and impact of global climate change

Natural processes (for example, oceanic circulation, orbitally-induced solar radiation fluctuations, the plate tectonic supercycle) and human activities contribute to global climate changes that are evident at a variety of time scales.

Human activities, particularly land-clearing and fossil fuel consumption, produce gases (including carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide and hydrofluorocarbons) and particulate materials that change the composition of the atmosphere and climatic conditions (for example, the enhanced greenhouse effect).

Climate change affects the biosphere, atmosphere, geosphere and hydrosphere; climate change has been linked to changes in species distribution, crop productivity, sea level, rainfall patterns, surface temperature and extent of ice sheets.

Geological, prehistorical and historical records provide evidence (for example, fossils, pollen grains, ice core data, isotopic ratios, indigenous art sites) that climate change has affected different regions and species differently over time.

Climate change models (for example, general circulation models, models of El Nino and La Nina) describe the behaviour and interactions of the oceans and atmosphere; these models are developed through the analysis of past and current climate data, with the aim of predicting the response of global climate to changes in the contributing components (for example, changes in global ice cover and atmospheric composition).

Earth and Environmental Science – Unit 3 and Unit 4

A.

Earth and Environmental Science concepts, models and applications

• analyses how human activities and Earth processes affect components of, and interactions between, Earth systems across a range of temporal and spatial scales;
• analyses how interactions between Earth systems change, and how these changes are monitored and managed across a range of temporal and spatial scales;
• explains the theories and model/s used to explain the systems, the supporting evidence and their limitations and assumptions;
• applies theories and models of systems and processes to explain phenomena and critically analyse complex problems and make reasoned, plausible predictions in unfamiliar contexts.

Context

• analyses the role of collaboration, debate and review, and technologies, in the development of Earth and environmental theories and models;
• evaluates how Earth and environmental science has been used in concert with other sciences to meet diverse needs and inform decision making; and how these applications are influenced by interacting social, economic and ethical factors.

Earth and Environmental Science inquiry skills

• designs, conducts and improves safe, ethical investigations that efficiently collect valid, reliable data in response to a complex question or problem;
• analyses data sets to explain causal and correlational relationships, the reliability of the data and sources of error;
• justifies their selection of data as evidence, analyses evidence with reference to models and/or theories and develops evidence-based conclusions that identify limitations;
• evaluates processes and claims; provides an evidence-based critique and discussion of improvements or alternatives;
• selects, constructs and uses appropriate representations to describe complex relationships and solve complex and unfamiliar problems;
• communicates effectively and accurately in a range of modes, styles and genres for specific audiences and purposes.

B.

Earth and Environmental Science concepts, models and applications

• explains how human activities and Earth processes affect components of, and interactions between, Earth systems;
• explains how interactions between Earth systems change, and how these changes are monitored and managed;
• describes the theories and model/s used to explain the systems, some supporting evidence, and their limitations;
• applies theories and models of systems and processes to explain phenomena, analyse problems and make plausible predictions in unfamiliar contexts.

Context

• explains the role of collaboration, debate and review, and technologies, in the development of Earth and environmental theories and models
  •explains how Earth and environmental science has been used to meet diverse needs and inform decision making; and how these applications are influenced by social, economic and ethical factors.

Earth and Environmental Science inquiry skills

• designs, conducts and improves safe, ethical investigations that collect valid, reliable data in response to a question or problem;
• analyses data sets to identify causal and correlational relationships, anomalies and sources of error;
• selects appropriate data as evidence, interprets evidence with reference to models and/or theories and provides evidence for conclusions;
• evaluates processes and claims; provides a critique with reference to evidence and identifies possible improvements or alternatives;
• selects, constructs and uses appropriate representations to describe complex relationships and solve unfamiliar problems;
• communicates clearly and accurately in a range of modes, styles and genres for specific audiences and purposes.

C.

Earth and Environmental Science concepts, models and applications

• explains how human activities and Earth processes affect components of Earth systems;
• explains how components of Earth systems change, and how these changes are managed;
• describes key aspects of a theory or model used to explain system processes and the phenomena to which they can be applied;
• applies theories or models of systems and processes to explain phenomena, interpret problems and make plausible predictions in some unfamiliar contexts.

Context

• describes the role of collaboration and review, and technologies, in the development of Earth and environmental theories or models
• discusses how Earth and environmental science has been used to meet needs and inform decision making, and some social, economic or ethical implications of these applications.

Earth and Environmental Science inquiry skills

• designs and conducts safe, ethical investigations that collect valid data in response to a question or problem;
• analyses data to identify relationships, anomalies and sources of error;
• selects data to demonstrate relationships linked to Earth and environmental knowledge and provides conclusions based on data;
• evaluates processes and claims and suggests improvements or alternatives;
• selects, constructs and uses appropriate representations to describe relationships and solve problems;
• communicates clearly in a range of modes, styles and genres for specific purposes.

D.

Earth and Environmental Science concepts, models and applications

• describes how human activities and Earth processes affect components of Earth systems;
• describes changes to components of Earth systems and some management responses;
• describes key aspects of a theory or model used to explain a system process;
• describes phenomena, interprets simple problems and makes predictions in familiar contexts.

Context

• describes the role of communication and new evidence in developing Earth and environmental knowledge;
• describes ways in which Earth and environmental science has been used in society to meet needs and identifies some implications of these applications.

Earth and Environmental Science inquiry skills

• plans and conducts safe, ethical investigations to collect data in response to a question or problem;
• analyses data to identify trends and anomalies;
• selects data to demonstrate trends and presents simple conclusions based on data;
• considers processes and claims from a personal perspective;
• constructs and uses simple representations to describe relationships and solve simple problems;
• communicates in a range of modes and genres.

E.

Earth and Environmental Science concepts, models and applications

• identifies some human activities and Earth processes that impact components of Earth systems;
• describes some changes to components of Earth systems, and a related management response;
• identifies aspects of a theory or model related to a system process;
• describes phenomena and makes simple predictions in familiar contexts.

Context

• identifies that Earth and environmental knowledge has changed over time;
• identifies ways in which Earth and environmental science has been used in society to meet needs.

Earth and Environmental Science inquiry skills

• follows a procedure to conduct safe, ethical investigations to collect data;
• identifies trends in data;
• selects data to demonstrate trends;
• considers claims from a personal perspective;
• constructs and uses simple representations to describe phenomena;
• communicates in a range of modes.

Unit 3: Gravity and electromagnetism

Field theories have enabled physicists to explain a vast array of natural phenomena and have contributed to the development of technologies that have changed the world, including electrical power generation and distribution systems, artificial satellites and modern communication systems. In this unit, students develop a deeper understanding of motion and its causes by using Newton’s Laws of Motion and the gravitational field model to analyse motion on inclined planes, the motion of projectiles, and satellite motion. They investigate electromagnetic interactions and apply this knowledge to understand the operation of direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) motors and generators, transformers, and AC electricity distribution systems. Students also investigate the production of electromagnetic waves.

Contexts that could be investigated in this unit include technologies such as artificial satellites, navigation devices, large-scale electrical power generation and distribution, motors and generators, electric cars, synchrotron science, medical imaging and astronomical telescopes such as the Square Kilometre Array, and related areas of science and engineering such as sports science, amusement parks, ballistics, forensics, black holes and dark matter.

Through the investigation of appropriate contexts, students explore the ways in which models and theories related to gravity and electromagnetism, and associated technologies, have developed over time and through interactions with social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations. They investigate the ways in which science contributes to contemporary debate about local, regional and international issues, including evaluation of risk and action for sustainability, and recognise the limitations of science to provide definitive answers in different contexts.

Students develop their understanding of field theories of gravity and electromagnetism through investigations of motion and electromagnetic phenomena. Through these investigations they develop skills in relating graphical representations of data to quantitative relationships between variables, using lines of force to represent vector fields, and interpreting interactions in two and three dimensions. They continue to develop skills in planning, conducting and interpreting the results of primary and secondary investigations and in evaluating the validity of primary and secondary data.

By the end of this unit, students:

• understand that motion in gravitational, electric and magnetic fields can be explained using Newton’s Laws of Motion;
• understand how the electromagnetic wave model explains the production and propagation of electromagnetic waves across the electromagnetic spectrum;
• understand transformations and transfer of energy in electromagnetic devices, as well as transformations and transfer of energy associated with motion in electric, magnetic and gravitational fields;
• understand how models and theories have developed over time, and the ways in which physical science knowledge and associated technologies interact with social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations;
• use science inquiry skills to design, conduct, analyse and evaluate investigations into uniform circular motion, projectile motion, satellite motion and gravitational and electromagnetic phenomena, and to communicate methods and findings;
• use algebraic and graphical representations to calculate, analyse and predict measurable quantities related to motion, gravitational effects and electromagnetic phenomena;
• evaluate, with reference to evidence, claims about motion, gravity and electromagnetic phenomena and associated technologies, and justify evaluations;
• communicate physics understanding using qualitative and quantitative representations in appropriate modes and genres.

Science Inquiry Skills

Identify, research and construct questions for investigation; propose hypotheses; and predict possible outcomes.

Design investigations, including the procedure to be followed, the materials required, and the type and amount of primary and/or secondary data to be collected; conduct risk assessments; and consider research ethics.

Conduct investigations, including the manipulation of force measurers and electromagnetic devices, safely, competently and methodically for the collection of valid and reliable data.

Represent data in meaningful and useful ways, including using appropriate SI units, symbols and significant figures; organise and analyse data to identify trends, patterns and relationships; identify sources of uncertainty and techniques to minimise these uncertainties; utilise uncertainty and percentage uncertainty to determine the uncertainty in the result of calculations, and evaluate the impact of measurement uncertainty on experimental results; and select, synthesise and use evidence to make and justify conclusions.

Interpret a range of scientific and media texts, and evaluate processes, claims and conclusions by considering the accuracy and precision of available evidence; and use reasoning to construct scientific arguments.

Select, construct and use appropriate representations, including text and graphic representations of empirical and theoretical relationships, vector diagrams, free body/force diagrams, field diagrams and circuit diagrams, to communicate conceptual understanding, solve problems and make predictions.

Select, use and interpret appropriate mathematical representations, including linear and non-linear graphs and algebraic relationships representing physical systems, to solve problems and make predictions.

Communicate to specific audiences and for specific purposes using appropriate language, nomenclature, genres and modes, including scientific reports.

Science as a Human Endeavour (Units 3 & 4)

ICT and other technologies have dramatically increased the size, accuracy and geographic and temporal scope of datasets with which scientists work.

Models and theories are contested and refined or replaced when new evidence challenges them, or when a new model or theory has greater explanatory power.

The acceptance of science understanding can be influenced by the social, economic and cultural context in which it is considered.

People can use scientific knowledge to inform the monitoring, assessment and evaluation of risk.

Science can be limited in its ability to provide definitive answers to public debate; there may be insufficient reliable data available, or interpretation of the data may be open to question.

International collaboration is often required when investing in large-scale science projects or addressing issues for the Asia-Pacific region.

Scientific knowledge can be used to develop and evaluate projected economic, social and environmental impacts and to design action for sustainability.

Gravity and motion

The movement of free-falling bodies in Earth’s gravitational field is predictable.

All objects with mass attract one another with a gravitational force; the magnitude of this force can be calculated using Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation.

Objects with mass produce a gravitational field in the space that surrounds them; field theory attributes the gravitational force on an object to the presence of a gravitational field.

When a mass moves or is moved from one point to another in a gravitational field and its potential energy changes, work is done on or by the field.

Gravitational field strength is defined as the net force per unit mass at a particular point in the field.

The vector nature of the gravitational force can be used to analyse motion on inclined planes by considering the components of the gravitational force (that is, weight) parallel and perpendicular to the plane.

Projectile motion can be analysed quantitatively by treating the horizontal and vertical components of the motion independently.

When an object experiences a net force of constant magnitude perpendicular to its velocity, it will undergo uniform circular motion, including circular motion on a horizontal plane and around a banked track.

Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation is used to explain Kepler’s laws of planetary motion and to describe the motion of planets and other satellites, modelled as uniform circular motion.

Electromagnetism

Electrostatically charged objects exert a force upon one another; the magnitude of this force can be calculated using Coulomb’s Law;

Point charges and charged objects produce an electric field in the space that surrounds them; field theory attributes the electrostatic force on a point charge or charged body to the presence of an electric field.

A positively charged body placed in an electric field will experience a force in the direction of the field; the strength of the electric field is defined as the force per unit charge.

When a charged body moves or is moved from one point to another in an electric field and its potential energy changes, work is done on or by the field.

Current-carrying wires are surrounded by magnetic fields; these fields are utilised in solenoids and electromagnets.

The strength of the magnetic field produced by a current is called the magnetic flux density.

Magnets, magnetic materials, moving charges and current-carrying wires experience a force in a magnetic field; this force is utilised in DC electric motors.

Magnetic flux is defined in terms of magnetic flux density and area.

A changing magnetic flux induces a potential difference; this process of electromagnetic induction is used in step-up and step-down transformers, DC and AC generators, and AC induction motors.

Conservation of energy, expressed as Lenz’s Law of electromagnetic induction, is used to determine the direction of induced current.

Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves made up of mutually perpendicular, oscillating electric and magnetic fields.

Oscillating charges produce electromagnetic waves of the same frequency as the oscillation; electromagnetic waves cause charges to oscillate at the frequency of the wave.

Unit 4: Revolutions in modern physics

The development of quantum theory and the theory of relativity fundamentally changed our understanding of how nature operates and led to the development of a wide range of new technologies, including technologies that revolutionised the storage, processing and communication of information. In this unit, students examine observations of relative motion, light and matter that could not be explained by existing theories, and investigate how the shortcomings of existing theories led to the development of the special theory of relativity and the quantum theory of light and matter. Students evaluate the contribution of the quantum theory of light to the development of the quantum theory of the atom, and examine the Standard Model of particle physics and the Big Bang theory.

Contexts that could be investigated in this unit include technologies such as GPS navigation, lasers, modern electric lighting, medical imaging, nanotechnology, semiconductors, quantum computers and particle accelerators; and related areas of science such as space travel, the digital revolution and the greenhouse effect.

Through the investigation of appropriate contexts, students explore the ways in which these models and theories, and associated technologies, have developed over time and through interactions with social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations. They investigate the ways in which science contributes to contemporary debate about local, regional and international issues, including evaluation of risk and action for sustainability, and recognise the limitations of science to provide definitive answers in different contexts.

Through investigation, students apply their understanding of relativity, black body radiation, wave/particle duality, and the quantum theory of the atom, to make and/or explain observations of a range of phenomena such as atomic emission and absorption spectra, the photoelectric effect, lasers, and Earth’s energy balance. They continue to develop skills in planning, conducting and interpreting the results of investigations, in synthesising evidence to support conclusions, and in recognising and defining the realm of validity of physical theories and models.

By the end of this unit, students:

• understand the consequences for space and time of the equivalence principle for inertial frames of reference;
• understand how the quantum theory of light and matter explains blackbody radiation, the photoelectric effect, and atomic emission and absorption spectra;
• understand how the Standard Model explains the nature of and interaction between the fundamental particles that form the building blocks of matter;
• understand how models and theories have developed over time, and the ways in which physical science knowledge and associated technologies interact with social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations;
• use science inquiry skills to design, conduct, analyse and evaluate investigations into frames of reference, diffraction, black body and atomic emission spectra, the photoelectric effect, and photonic devices, and to communicate methods and findings;
• use algebraic and graphical models to solve problems and make predictions related to the theory and applications of special relativity, quantum theory and the Standard Model;
• evaluate the experimental evidence that supports the theory of relativity, wave-particle duality, the Bohr model of the atom, the Standard Model, and the Big Bang theory;
• communicate physics understanding using qualitative and quantitative representations in appropriate modes and genres.

Science Inquiry Skills

Identify, research and construct questions for investigation; propose hypotheses; and predict possible outcomes.

Design investigations, including the procedure to be followed, the materials required, and the type and amount of primary and/or secondary data to be collected; conduct risk assessments; and consider research ethics.

Conduct investigations, including use of simulations and manipulation of spectral devices, safely, competently and methodically for the collection of valid and reliable data.

Represent data in meaningful and useful ways, including using appropriate SI units, symbols and significant figures; organise and analyse data to identify trends, patterns and relationships; identify sources of uncertainty and techniques to minimise these uncertainties; utilise uncertainty and percentage uncertainty to determine the cumulative uncertainty resulting from calculations, and evaluate the impact of measurement uncertainty on experimental results; and select, synthesise and use evidence to make and justify conclusions.

Interpret a range of scientific and media texts, and evaluate processes, claims and conclusions by considering the quality of available evidence; and use reasoning to construct scientific arguments.

Select, construct and use appropriate representations, including text and graphic representations of empirical and theoretical relationships, simulations, simple reaction diagrams and atomic energy level diagrams, to communicate conceptual understanding, solve problems and make predictions.

Select, use and interpret appropriate mathematical representations, including linear and non-linear graphs and algebraic relationships representing physical systems, to solve problems and make predictions.

Communicate to specific audiences and for specific purposes using appropriate language, nomenclature, genres and modes, including scientific reports.

Science as a Human Endeavour (Units 3 & 4)

ICT and other technologies have dramatically increased the size, accuracy and geographic and temporal scope of datasets with which scientists work.

Models and theories are contested and refined or replaced when new evidence challenges them, or when a new model or theory has greater explanatory power.

The acceptance of science understanding can be influenced by the social, economic and cultural context in which it is considered.

People can use scientific knowledge to inform the monitoring, assessment and evaluation of risk.

Science can be limited in its ability to provide definitive answers to public debate; there may be insufficient reliable data available, or interpretation of the data may be open to question.

International collaboration is often required when investing in large-scale science projects or addressing issues for the Asia-Pacific region.

Scientific knowledge can be used to develop and evaluate projected economic, social and environmental impacts and to design action for sustainability.

Special relativity

Observations of objects travelling at very high speeds cannot be explained by Newtonian physics (for example, the dilated half-life of high-speed muons created in the upper atmosphere, and the momentum of high speed particles in particle accelerators).

Einstein’s special theory of relativity predicts significantly different results to those of Newtonian physics for velocities approaching the speed of light.

The special theory of relativity is based on two postulates: that the speed of light in a vacuum is an absolute constant, and that all inertial reference frames are equivalent.

Motion can only be measured relative to an observer; length and time are relative quantities that depend on the observer’s frame of reference.

Relativistic momentum increases at high relative speed and prevents an object from reaching the speed of light.

The concept of mass-energy equivalence emerged from the special theory of relativity and explains the source of the energy produced in nuclear reactions.

Quantum theory

Atomic phenomena and the interaction of light with matter indicate that states of matter and energy are quantised into discrete values.

On the atomic level, electromagnetic radiation is emitted or absorbed in discrete packets called photons; the energy of a photon is proportional to its frequency; and the constant of proportionality, Planck’s constant, can be determined experimentally (for example, from the photoelectric effect or the threshold voltage of coloured LEDs).

A wide range of phenomena, including black body radiation and the photoelectric effect, are explained using the concept of light quanta.

Atoms of an element emit and absorb specific wavelengths of light that are unique to that element; this is the basis of spectral analysis.

The Bohr model of the hydrogen atom integrates light quanta and atomic energy states to explain the specific wavelengths in the hydrogen spectrum and in the spectra of other simple atoms; the Bohr model enables line spectra to be correlated with atomic energy-level diagrams.

On the atomic level, energy and matter exhibit the characteristics of both waves and particles (for example, Young’s double slit experiment is explained with a wave model but produces the same interference pattern when one photon at a time is passed through the slits).

The Standard Model

The Standard Model is based on the premise that all matter in the universe is made up from elementary matter particles called quarks and leptons; quarks experience the strong force, leptons do not.

The Standard Model explains three of the four fundamental forces (strong, weak and electromagnetic forces) in terms of an exchange of force-carrying particles called gauge bosons; each force is mediated by a different type of gauge boson.

Reactions between particles can be represented by simple reaction diagrams.

Lepton number and baryon number are examples of quantities that are conserved in all reactions between particles; conservation laws can be used to support or invalidate proposed reactions.

Variations of reactions can be found by applying symmetry operations to known reactions. These include reversing the direction of the reaction diagram (time reversal symmetry) and replacing all particles with their antiparticles and vice versa (charge reversal symmetry). Energy and momentum must also be conserved for such a reaction to be possible.

High-energy particle accelerators are used to test theories of particle physics including the Standard Model.

The Standard Model is used to describe the evolution of forces and the creation of matter in the Big Bang theory.

Physics – Unit 3 and Unit 4

A.

Physics concepts, models and applications

• analyses physical phenomena in complex scenarios at a range of scales qualitatively and quantitatively;
• analyses the relationships between mass, energy and properties of physical systems qualitatively and quantitatively;
• explains the theories and model/s used to explain the system, the supporting evidence, and their limitations and assumptions;
• applies theories and models of systems and processes to explain phenomena, critically analyse complex problems, and make reasoned, plausible predictions in unfamiliar contexts.

Context

• designs, conducts and improves safe, ethical investigations that efficiently collect valid, reliable data in response to a complex question or problem;
• analyses data sets to explain causal and correlational relationships, the reliability of the data, and sources of error;
• justifies their selection of data as evidence, analyses evidence with reference to models and/or theories, and develops evidence-based conclusions that identify limitations;
• evaluates processes and claims, and provides an evidence-based critique and discussion of improvements or alternatives;
• selects, constructs and uses appropriate representations to describe complex relationships and solve complex and unfamiliar problems;
• communicates effectively and accurately in a range of modes, styles and genres for specific audiences and purposes.

B.

Physics concepts, models and applications

• explains physical phenomena at a range of scales qualitatively and quantitatively;
• explains the relationships between mass, energy and properties of physical systems qualitatively and quantitatively;
• describes the theories and model/s used to explain the system, some supporting evidence, and their limitations;
• applies theories and models of systems and processes to explain phenomena, analyse problems, and make plausible predictions in unfamiliar contexts.

Context

• explains the roles of collaboration, debate and review, and technologies, in the development of physical science theories and models;
• explains how physical science has been used to meet diverse needs and to inform decision making; and how these applications are influenced by social, economic and ethical factors.

Physics inquiry skills

• designs, conducts and improves safe, ethical investigations that collect valid, reliable data in response to a question or problem;
• analyses data sets to identify causal and correlational relationships, anomalies, and sources of error;
• selects appropriate data as evidence, interprets evidence with reference to models and/or theories, and provides evidence for conclusions;
• evaluates processes and claims, provides a critique with reference to evidence, and identifies possible improvements or alternatives;
• selects, constructs and uses appropriate representations to describe complex relationships and solve unfamiliar problems;
• communicates clearly and accurately in a range of modes, styles and genres for specific audiences and purposes.

C.

Physics concepts, models and applications

• explains physical phenomena qualitatively and quantitatively;
• explains the relationships between mass, energy and properties of physical systems qualitatively;
• describes key aspects of a theory or model used to explain system processes, and the phenomena to which they can be applied;
• applies theories or models of systems and processes to explain phenomena, interpret problems, and make plausible predictions in some unfamiliar contexts.

Context

• describes the roles of collaboration and review, and technologies, in the development of physical science theories or models;
• discusses how physical science has been used to meet needs and to inform decision making, and some social, economic or ethical implications of these applications.

Physics inquiry skills

• designs and conducts safe, ethical investigations that collect valid data in response to a question or problem;
• analyses data to identify relationships, anomalies, and sources of error;
• selects data to demonstrate relationships linked to physical science knowledge, and provides conclusions based on data;
• evaluates processes and claims, and suggests improvements or alternatives;
• selects, constructs and uses appropriate representations to describe relationships and solve problems;
• communicates clearly in a range of modes, styles and genres for specific purposes.

D.

Physics concepts, models and applications

• describes physical phenomena qualitatively;
• describes how components and properties of physical systems are related;
• describes key aspects of a theory or model used to explain a system process;
• describes phenomena, interprets simple problems, and makes predictions in familiar contexts.

Context

• describes the roles of communication and new evidence in developing physical science knowledge;
• describes ways in which physical science has been used in society to meet needs, and identifies some implications of these applications.

Physics inquiry skills

• plans and conducts safe, ethical investigations to collect data in response to a question or problem;
• analyses data to identify trends and anomalies;
• selects data to demonstrate trends, and presents simple conclusions based on data;
• considers processes and claims from a personal perspective;
• constructs and uses simple representations to describe relationships and solve simple problems;
• communicates in a range of modes and genres.

E.

Physics concepts, models and applications

• describes properties of physical phenomena;
• describes components of physical systems;
• identifies aspects of a theory or model related to a system process;
• describes phenomena and makes simple predictions in familiar contexts.

Context

• identifies that physical science knowledge has changed over time;
• identifies ways in which physical science has been used in society to meet needs.

Physics inquiry skills

• follows a procedure to conduct safe, ethical investigations to collect data;
• identifies trends in data;
• selects data to demonstrate trends;
• considers claims from a personal perspective;
• constructs and uses simple representations to describe phenomena;
• communicates in a range of modes.

Unit 3: People, Power and Authority

This unit involves an investigation of ONE ancient society across a broad historical period, with a particular emphasis on the nature and exercise of power and authority in that society. Students also study ONE individual who had a significant impact on their times, either within the chosen society or another society. This unit requires a greater focus on a range of written source material and an evaluation of the significance of the selected individual.

Students examine the nature of power and authority in the society and the ways in which it was demonstrated through political, military, religious and economic features. This study requires a focus on the reasons for continuity and change. The detailed study of an individual who had a significant impact on their times develops students’ understanding of the importance of human agency, as demonstrated by the possible motivations and actions of individuals. Students develop their skills of historical analysis with an emphasis on the identification and evaluation of different perspectives and interpretations of the past and on an understanding of the issue of contestability in history. The key conceptual understandings of this unit include: causation, change and continuity, perspectives, interpretations and contestability.

By the end of this unit, students:

• understand the nature and extent of change and continuity within the historical period;
• understand developments in power and authority over time and the role and impact of a significant individual on society;
• apply key concepts as part of a historical inquiry, including evidence, cause and effect, change and continuity, perspectives, interpretations and contestability;
• analyse and evaluate interpretations and communicate historical argument using a range of evidence.

Historical skills

All the following skills will be studied during this unit.

Chronology, terms and concepts

Identify links between events to understand the nature and significance of causation, change and continuity over time.

Use historical terms and concepts in appropriate contexts to demonstrate historical knowledge and understanding.

Historical questions and research

Formulate, test and modify propositions to investigate historical issues.

Frame questions to guide inquiry and develop a coherent research plan for inquiry.

Identify, locate and organise relevant information from a range of primary and secondary sources.

Identify and practise ethical scholarship when conducting research.

Analysis and use of sources

Identify the origin, purpose and context of historical sources.

Analyse, interpret and synthesise evidence from different types of sources to develop and sustain a historical argument.

Evaluate the reliability, usefulness and contestability of sources to develop informed judgments that support a historical argument.

Perspectives and interpretations

Analyse and account for the different perspectives of individuals and groups in the past.

Evaluate critically different historical interpretations of the past, how they evolved, and how they are shaped by the historian’s perspective.

Evaluate contested views about the past to understand the provisional nature of historical knowledge and to arrive at reasoned and supported conclusions.

Explanation and communication

Develop texts that integrate appropriate evidence from a range of sources to explain the past and to support and refute arguments.

Communicate historical understanding by selecting and using text forms appropriate to the purpose and audience.

Apply appropriate referencing techniques accurately and consistently.

Historical knowledge and understanding

Students will study ONE of the following societies:

New Kingdom Egypt to the death of Horemheb	Persia, 560 – 330 BC
Archaic Greece, 900 – 600 BC	Athens, 490 – 445 BC
Rome, 133 – 63 BC	Rome, 63 BC – AD 14
Later Han and Three Kingdoms, AD 180 – 280

AND

Students study ONE of the following individuals:

Akhenaten	Augustus
Caesar	Cicero
Cimon	Darius I
Hatshepsut	Liu Bei
Livia	Pericles
Solon	Sulla
Themistocles	Thutmose III
Xerxes	Zhuge Liang

Students study ONE of the following societies, to be taught with the requisite historical skills described at the start of this unit:

New Kingdom Egypt to the death of Horemheb

Background for the period (approximately 10 percent of the teaching time for this topic)

The historical and geographical context, including an overview of Old and Middle Kingdom developments, the significance of the Second Intermediate Period; Upper and Lower Egypt, the territorial boundaries of Egypt.

The nature of power and authority at the beginning of the New Kingdom, including the social and political structure (role and status of pharaoh/royalty, nobility, scribes, artisans, agricultural workers; the nature and impact of Hyksos rule); religion (significance of the pharaoh as god-king, Son of Re, Lord of the Two Lands, Upholder of Maat, the role and importance of Amun); the economy and civil administration (importance of the Nile, agriculture and other natural resources; role and status of the vizier); and the bureaucracy (methods of taxation, commerce and trade).

Power and authority – change and development

The role of 17th dynasty rulers, including queens, in the expulsion of the Hyksos and the establishment of the 18th dynasty.

The consolidation of the 18th dynasty in relation to the role and growing status of the Amun cult and Egyptian queens who took the title ‘God’s Wife of Amun’.

The religious, political and economic importance of pharaonic building programs, including the cult temples of Luxor and Karnak; the royal mortuary temples (western Thebes); the tomb builders’ village, Deir el Medina; the significance of Theban festivals.

Conquest and expansion in Nubia and Syria-Palestine, the iconography of the ‘warrior pharaoh’, and the nature of Egyptian imperialism.

The development and importance of the military in the expulsion of the Hyksos and in the expansion and maintenance of the Egyptian empire and the evidence provided by the military careers of at least TWO key individuals, for example Ahmose son of Ebana and Ahmose Pennekhbet.

The nature of the empire and its impact on economic development, including the significance of booty, tribute and trade.

The nature and impact of the Amarna revolution.

The nature and significance of the Restoration of Amun and other gods under Tutankhamun and Horemheb.

The changing nature of Egypt’s relations (for example warfare and diplomacy) with other powers, in particular the Mitanni and Hittites.

Persia 560 – 330 BC

Background for the period (approximately 10 percent of the teaching time for this topic).

The historical and geographical context, including Persian origins, neighbouring countries.

The nature of power and authority at the beginning of the period, including the social and political structure of Persian society (the role of king and court, the ‘bandaka’, the role of the family, tribal, and clan systems, royal women, commoners, subject peoples); religion (worship of the god Ahuramazda, the relationship of the king to Ahuramazda); the role of the priesthood and the nature of ritual (the Magi, fire altars, royal funerary customs, the significance of Zoroaster as a prophet); the economy (the nature and importance of agriculture, tribute and trade, Corvée obligations); and the military (the role and composition of the Persian army, the leadership structure and the role of the royal family).

Power and authority – change and development

The reasons for the establishment of the Achaemenid dynasty under Cyrus II and its consolidation under Cambyses, Darius and Xerxes.

Issues related to dynastic succession, the iconography of Achaemenid kingship, and the role and importance of the bureaucracy (arstibara, vacabara, hazarapatish).

The nature and importance of the imperial administration, including the role of the king, the military, the satrapy system, legal structures and laws; taxation; the development of coinage, weights and measures; the importance of communication and transport, for example the Royal Road; and the role of foreign workers, crafts and industry in Achaemenid building programs.

The nature and extent of imperial expansion, warfare, conquest and diplomacy, including the suppression of revolts for example in Babylon and Egypt, the invasions of Greece and the nature of Persian imperialism.

The importance of building programs as expressions of power, and the achievements of the Achaemenid dynasty in art and architecture; the royal capitals at Pasargadae, Susa, and Persepolis.

The impact of the religious policies of Persian kings within Persia and the empire, including Bel-Marduk, Hebrew beliefs and Egyptian gods.

The status of conquered powers within the empire and treatment of subject peoples, including Babylonians, Egyptians and Jews.

Reasons for the decline and collapse of the Persian Empire including Alexander the Great’s invasion and the death of Darius III.

Archaic Greece 900 – 600 BC

Background for the period (approximately 10 percent of the teaching time for this topic).

The historical and geographical context, including the emergence from the ‘Dark Ages’, the influence of geography on Greek political and economic development; the concept of ‘polis’ (origins of key city-states: Athens, Thebes, Megara, Corinth and Sparta); Sparta’s Dorian origins (nature and influence of Homeric Bronze Age tradition on Sparta’s early development), and Athens’ Ionian origins; the ‘displacement’ of the Ionians and settlement of Ionia.

The nature of power and authority at the beginning of the period, including the social structure (role and status of the family ‘oikos’, tribe, nobles, farmers, peasants, craftsmen); Greek religion (the nature of Hesiod’s cosmogony; Olympian gods); the emergence of the Athenian polis (hereditary kingship, the role of clans and phratriae); the emergence of the Spartan polis and role of kings.

Power and authority – change and development

The development of the Athenian polis, including the transition from monarchic to oligarchic rule; the role of polemarch, basileus, archons, thesmothetae, Areopagus, Ecclesia, and legal structures, for example Draco’s codification of laws.

The political, economic and cultural influence of Ionia on Athenian development.

Spartan expansion into Laconia and the impact of the Messenian Wars and the Lycurgan reforms on the development of the Spartan polis, including the structure and function of the dual kingship, ephors, Gerousia and Assembly.

Causes of colonisation, including the importance of agriculture and land ownership, the custom of primogeniture.

The political, social and economic impact of colonisation and trade on Greek poleis, including the role of the trireme and the emergence of a merchant class.

The impact of colonisation on relations with other powers, including trade and cultural contact with Near-Eastern neighbours; the importance of the Phoenician alphabet.

The causes of tyranny, the nature and impact of tyrants, for example Pheidon (Argos), Cleisthenes (Sicyon), Cypselus and Periander (Corinth), as well as their success in maintaining power.

The emergence of Pan-Hellenic sites for example Dodona and Delphi; the importance of omens and oracles for example Zeus and Apollo at Delphi; the religious and political significance of the Pan-Hellenic Games, including Olympic, Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean Games.

The nature and significance of technological innovation in pottery and monumental architecture.

Athens 490 – 445 BC

Background for the period (approximately 10 percent of the teaching time for this topic).

The chronological and geographical context of Athens in 490 BC, including Cleisthene’s democracy, the Spartan and Persian attempts to interfere in Athenian domestic affairs prior to 490BC, the Athenian response, and the Ionian Revolt.

The nature of power and authority in Athens in 490 BC, including key political concepts (demos, polis, oligarchy, democracy, ostracism); key social groups (Solon’s pentacosiomedimni, hippeis, zeugitae, thetes, slaves, metics and women); and Athenian government, including Cleisthene’s reforms.

Power and authority – change and development

The causes, course and consequences of conflict with Persia in 490 BC with particular reference to the Ionian Revolt, Marathon, role of Xanthippus and Miltiades.

The development of Athens’ domestic politics for example the use of ostracisms in the 480s, the ascendency of Themistocles, the construction of the fleet, and the enhancement of the position of strategoi .

The Persian Wars 481-478 BC, including the Battle of Salamis, the formation of the Hellenic League, Spartan hegemony and the role of Leonidas, Themistocles, Pausanias, and the significance of the increased prestige of Athens.

The reasons for the formation of the Delian League, including the aims, structure and naval superiority of Athens (ACHAH197)

Initial campaigns under Cimon to 461BC and their significance for Athenian power internally and externally, including Sparta’s response to the growth of Athenian power.

The rise in thetic power in Athens and the reasons for Ephialtes’ reforms to the political institutions of the Areopagus, Boule, Ecclesia and Heliaea.

Athens’ changing foreign policy in 461BC, its alliances with Megara and Thessaly, the First Peloponnesian War, the Athenian Land Empire, and Cimon’s possible recall.

The significance of Athens’ leadership of the Delian League, the transformation of the League to an empire, and the methods of control used by Athens to 445BC.

The beginnings of Periclean Athens, including democratic reforms and the building program.

Rome 133 – 63BC

Background for the period (approximately 10 percent of the teaching time for this topic).

The historical and geographical context, including the location of Rome and the geographical extent of Roman territory, and neighbouring kingdoms and societies.

The nature of power and authority in Rome in 133 BC, including the social structures of Roman society (the nobility, equestrians, slaves, freedmen, socii, patron-client relations and family structures; the distinction between citizens and non-citizens; the political structures (consuls, senate, tribunate, assemblies and provincial administration); the economy, (agriculture, the land tenure system, trade, slavery, provinces and taxation); the military organisation; and religious practices (omens, oracles, religious festivals, triumphs and games).

Power and authority – change and development

Reasons for the reforms of Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus, the methods used by the Gracchi, and the political, economic and social impact of the reforms.

The tribunate and growing tensions between the optimates and populares between 133-63BC.

The reasons for Marius’ first consulship, his command against Jurgurtha, the significance of his subsequent consulships and extraordinary commands against the Teutones and Cimbri.

The military reforms of Marius, the growth of client armies and their impact on Roman politics and society to 63BC.

The origins and key events of the Italian Wars and the subsequent changes to citizenship.

The reasons for Sulla’s March on Rome, the Civil War, Sulla’s dictatorship and the effectiveness of the so-called ‘Sullan Restoration’ on the powers of the tribunate and Senate.

The reasons for, and nature of, the extraordinary commands of Pompey up to 63BC and their impact on the Roman Republic, including the commands against Lepidus and Sertorius, the lex Gabinia and lex Manilia.

The significance of Cicero’s consulship, the Catiline Conspiracy and the Concordia Ordinum.

The role and impact of violence in Roman politics, including the use of the Senatus Consultum Ultimum, and Civil War.

Rome 63BC – 14AD

Background for the period (approximately 10 percent of the teaching time for this topic).

The historical and geographical context, including the location of Rome and the geographical extent of Roman territory, and neighbouring kingdoms and societies.

The nature of power and authority in Rome in 63BC, including the social structure of Roman society (the nobility, equestrians, slaves, freedmen, patron-client relations, and family structures, including ‘pater familias’); political structures (the senate, assemblies of the people, the magistrates of the people, the provincial administration, and the use of the Senatus Consultum Ultimum); the economy (agriculture, trade, slavery, provinces, taxation and Pompey’s Eastern Settlement); military organisation (client armies); religious practices (omens, oracles, religious festivals, triumphs and games).

Power and authority – change and development

The reasons for the formation of the ‘First Triumvirate’ of Caesar, Crassus and Pompey, including tensions between the optimates and populares.

Caesar’s first consulship, his legislative program, and his acquisition of the Gallic Command.

The reasons for the breakdown of the ‘First Triumvirate’ and the key events of the Civil War, including Caesar versus Pompey and the optimates; battles of Pharsalus, Thapsus and Munda.

Caesar’s dictatorship, including his constitutional position, reform program and the reasons for his assassination.

The reasons for the formation of the ‘Second Triumvirate’ of Antony, Lepidus and Octavian.

The nature of the tensions and rivalry between Octavian and Mark Anthony, the breakdown of the ‘Second Triumvirate’, Cleopatra and the significance of the Battle of Actium.

The purpose and nature of the 1st and 2nd Settlements of Augustus, subsequent developments, and their impact in consolidating his authority.

The reasons for the reforms of Augustus and their political, social, military, cultural and economic impact on the Roman Republic.

The role and impact of violence in Roman politics, including the use of client armies and civil war.

The nature and objectives of Augustus’ foreign policy.

Later Han and the Three Kingdom, AD 180 – 280

Background for the period (approximately 10 percent of the teaching time for this topic).

The historical and geographical context in AD 180, the geographical extent of the Chinese state, the location of the capital Luoyang, including the significance of the plagues.

The nature of power and authority in China in AD 180, including the social structure of Late Han society (emperor, nobility, eunuchs, commoners, the significance of imperial marriage); political structures (emperor, ministers, the court, kings, provincial administration); the economy (agriculture, coinage, taxation of land, labour, property); popular religion (Daoism); the nature of military forces (limits of conscription standing armies, local levies, non-Chinese auxiliaries, private retainers,, development of warlord armies).

Power and authority – change and development

Zhang Jue and The Way of Great Peace campaign, the Yellow Turban Rebellion of AD 184 and its suppression; the north-western rebellion in the Liang province: the consequent social and economic disruption.

The reasons for the power struggle between the palace eunuchs, Confucianists and imperial relatives by marriage; AD 189: the death of Emperor Ling; the assassination of He Jin; the massacre of the Eunuchs and the seizure of power of warlord Dong Zhou.

The rise of military leaders and local warlords, the puppet reign of Emperor Xian, and the downfall of the Han dynasty.

Cao Cao’s military success at Guandu (AD 200) and his consolidation of power in northern China, the alliance of Sun Quan and Liu Bei, and the Battle of Red Cliffs (AD 208).

The abdication of Emperor Xian and the establishment of Cao Pi as Emperor of Wei in AD 220, Liu Bei as Emperor of Shu-Han and Sun Quan as Emperor of Wu.

The rivalry between Wu and Shu, Liu Bei’s victory at Ding Jun mountain and the capture of Hanzhong (AD 219), seizure of Jin province on the middle Yangtse by Wu (AD 219); Zhuge Liang’s Southern Expedition and the re-establishment of an alliance between the Wu and Shu kingdoms (AD 223).

Stability and prosperity in the state of Wu under Sun Quan, including conquest and colonisation in south China, and economic development including trade with South-East Asia.

The power of the Sima clan in Wei, the overthrow of Cao Shuang and the abdication of Cao Huan to Sima Yan in AD 264, the proclamation of the Jin Dynasty in northern China.

The decline of Shu after the death of Zhuge Liang, culminating in the invasion by Wei and the surrender of Liu Shan in AD 263.

The succession problems of the state of Wu and the surrender of of Sun Hao to Jin in AD 280.

The extent of Chinese territorial expansion by AD 280, the external threats, the evidence for Roman-Chinese relations.

Students will study ONE of the individuals (listed above) and will investigate, applying requisite historical skills, the following:

Their background and rise to prominence, including:

• family background and status;
• key events in their rise to prominence;
• significant influences on early development.

The career of the individual, including:

• change of role, position, status over time;
• possible motivations for actions;
• methods used to achieve aims;
• relationships with groups and other individuals;
• significant events in the career of the individual;
• manner and impact of death.

The impact and legacy of the individual, including:

• assessment of their life and career;
• the influence of the individual on their time;
• their longer-term impact and legacy.

Changing perspectives and interpretations of the individual, including:

• depictions of the individual during their lifetime;
• judgments of the individual by other individuals and groups during their lifetime;
• interpretations of the individual after their death (for example, in writings, images, films).

Unit 4: Reconstructing the Ancient World

This unit involves an investigation of a significant historical period through an analysis of relevant archaeological and written sources. Students will examine how these sources have been used to construct an understanding of the relevant social, political, religious and economic institutions and practices, and key events and individuals of the historical period.

This unit allows for greater study of historiography and the challenges associated with the interpretation and evaluation of the evidence. Students will analyse the reliability and usefulness of a wide range of sources and the contribution of new research and scholarship to the reconstruction of the historical period. The unit enables students to develop their understanding of changing interpretations over time and appreciate the contestable nature of history and the value of the ancient past.

The key conceptual understandings of this unit include: usefulness and reliability of sources, perspectives, interpretations, contestability, reconstruction and conservation.

By the end of this unit, students:

• understand the nature, purpose and significance of the sources and the extent to which they contribute to an understanding of the key features and developments of the historical period;
• understand issues relevant to the interpretation of sources and the reconstruction of the historical period, including the fragmentary nature of the evidence, reliability, excavation, and conservation;
• apply key concepts as part of a historical inquiry, including evidence, significance, perspectives, interpretations and contestability;
• use historical skills to investigate the historical period, and evaluate the usefulness and reliability of the sources, evaluate;
• interpretations, and communicate historical arguments.

Historical skills

All the following skills will be studied during this unit.

Chronology, terms and concepts

Identify links between events to understand the nature and significance of causation, change and continuity over time.

Use historical terms and concepts in appropriate contexts to demonstrate historical knowledge and understanding.

Historical questions and research

Formulate, test and modify propositions to investigate historical issues.

Frame questions to guide inquiry and develop a coherent research plan for inquiry.

Identify, locate and organise relevant information from a range of primary and secondary sources.

Identify and practise ethical scholarship when conducting research.

Analysis and use of sources

Identify the origin, purpose and context of historical sources.

Analyse, interpret and synthesise evidence from different types of sources to develop and sustain a historical argument.

Evaluate the reliability, usefulness and contestability of sources to develop informed judgments that support a historical argument.

Perspectives and interpretations

Analyse and account for the different perspectives of individuals and groups in the past.

Critically evaluate different historical interpretations of the past, how they evolved, and how they are shaped by the historian’s perspective.

Evaluate contested views about the past to understand the provisional nature of historical knowledge and to arrive at reasoned and supported conclusions.

Explanation and communication

Develop texts that integrate appropriate evidence from a range of sources to explain the past and to support and refute arguments.

Communicate historical understanding by selecting and using text forms appropriate to the purpose and audience.

Apply appropriate referencing techniques accurately and consistently.

Historical knowledge and understanding

Students will study at least ONE of the following periods:

• Thebes – East and West, 18th Dynasty Egypt;
• New Kingdom imperialism, diplomacy and governance, 18 – 20th Dynasty Egypt;
• The Athenian Agora and Acropolis, 514 – 399 BC;
• Athens, Sparta and the Peloponnesian War, 435 – 404 BC;
• The Julio-Claudians and ‘Imperial’ Rome, AD 14 – 68;
• Pompeii and Herculaneum, 80 BC – AD 79.

Students study at least ONE of the following, to be taught with the requisite historical skills described at the start of this unit:

Thebes – East and West, 18th Dynasty Egypt

Students study Thebes – east and west in the period of the 18th dynasty, with particular reference to the remains at these sites, and other relevant sources.

The geographic and historical context

The location, main features and layout of Thebes, including its origins, the significance of the Nile, and the division between the East and West Bank.

The nature and extent of the Egyptian ‘empire’ in Nubia and Syria-Palestine in the period.

The nature and range of sources for the period and identification of key issues related to the investigation of the sources (for example authentication, excavation, reconstruction and/or conservation).

The discoveries and influence of early adventurers and explorers, including Napoleon and his expedition, and Belzoni’s removal of artefacts.

The key archaeological and written sources for the period, for example temples, statues, tombs, reliefs, papyri, inscriptions and ostraka.

The nature of the Theban excavations and the use of scientific methods, and the contributions of significant archaeologists and institutions, for example Flinders Petrie, the French-Egyptian Centre for the Study of the Temples of Karnak, the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Polish Mission of Deir el-Bahri, and the German Archaeological Institute.

The effectiveness of the protection and conservation of the Theban sites, for example the contribution of the Epigraphic Survey of the Oriental Institute of Chicago (East Bank), the Theban Mapping Project (West Bank), and the Macquarie Theban Tombs Project.

The historical period

The development of the East Bank of Thebes, including the temples of Karnak and Luxor, shrines, statues, stelae, papyri, inscriptions, paintings and other artefacts.

The political and religious significance and purpose of the temples and palaces, including the state cult of Amun and the ideology of kingship.

The development of the West Bank: the Valleys of the Kings and Queens, tombs of the nobles, tomb paintings and reliefs, mortuary temples and the palace of Malkata.

The nature and significance of afterlife beliefs and practices of royalty and non-royalty.

The importance of the pharaonic building program at Thebes in the economic life of New Kingdom Egypt.

The significance of the evidence at the Theban sites for Egyptian imperialism, including booty and tribute from military campaigns and the presence and role of foreigners within Egyptian society.

The significant cultural beliefs and practices of Egyptian society as revealed through Theban sources.

The evidence provided by human remains and other sources about royal lineage and the health of New Kingdom Egyptians in this period.

The limitations, reliability and evaluation of the sources.

The usefulness and reliability of the portrayal of the pharoah and royal family in reliefs and inscriptions.

Difficulties of interpretation of evidence owing to additions and re-use by successive 18th dynasty pharaohs, including damage to or removal of reliefs and inscriptions caused by environmental factors or human agency.

The significance of writing and literature as sources of evidence for the period.

Changing interpretations of the sources over time to an understanding of the period, including new discoveries, research and technologies.

Research and recording work, including the Epigraphic Survey of the Oriental Institute of Chicago, the Theban Mapping Project, the further excavations of KV5 (Kent Weeks), and the discovery of KV63 (Otto Schaden).

The contribution of Italian fresco conservateurs to the conservation and restoration of the Theban tomb paintings, for example those in the tomb of Queen Nefertari.

The contribution of new scientific methodologies, including DNA analysis, radio-carbon dating, dendrochronology, thermoluminescence, proton magnetometer, and x-rays.

The contribution of scholars and contemporary Egyptian and international historians, for example Champollion’s decipherment of hieroglyphs, and the work of Lepsius, Thomas Young, Gardiner, Cerny and Wilkinson.

New Kingdom imperialism, diplomacy and governance, 18 – 20th Dynasty Egypt

Students study Egyptian imperialism, diplomacy and governance in the 18th – 20th dynasty period, with particular reference to diplomatic correspondence, legal documents and other relevant sources.

The geographic and historical context

The key features of civil administration and the nature of governance in New Kingdom Egypt.

The nature and extent of the Egyptian ‘empire’ in Nubia and Syria-Palestine in the period, including Egyptian foreign policy at the start of the Amarna Period (warfare and diplomacy).

The nature and range of sources for the period and the identification of key issues related to the investigation of the sources (for example authentication, excavation, reconstruction and/or conservation).

The key archaeological and written sources for the period, for example temples, statues, tombs, reliefs, official correspondence and inscriptions.

The incomplete and fragmentary nature of the evidence for the period, including the Amarna Letters.

The difficulties in the dating and interpretation of the Amarna letters, including the identity of the writers and their possible motivations, the identification of the cities that they ruled, and the location of cities which are unknown or disputed.

The evidence for the obliteration of Akhenaten’s reign from the historical records by later pharaohs.

The historical period

The evidence provided by the Amarna Letters and other sources for Amenhotep III’s foreign policy, including relations with vassals and other kingdoms; the role of diplomacy, including royal correspondence; and diplomatic marriage as an instrument of Egyptian foreign policy.

The evidence for the relationship between Akhenaten and his vassals in Syria- Palestine, for example Ribadda (Byblos), Abdi-Asirta and Aziru (Amurru) as well as royal correspondence with the Mitannian and Hittite rulers.

The nature of governance in post Amarna Egypt as indicated by Tutankhamun’s Restoration Stele and the Decrees of Horemheb.

The evidence for post Amarna foreign policy provided by Egyptian and other sources, including correspondence between Queen Ankhesenamun and the Hittite King, Suppiluliumas I, the Peace treaty between Hattusilis III and Ramesses II (Hittite and Egyptian versions) and correspondence between the Hittite and Egyptian queens.

The warrior pharaoh image and foreign policies of Seti I and Ramesses II, and Merenptah and Ramesses III, including warfare and diplomacy.

The nature of governance, dynastic change and economic decline in the later New Kingdom, including the workers strike at Deir el-Medina, the Harem Conspiracy (Ramesses III), tomb robberies and the Report of Wenamun.

The limitations, reliability and evaluation of the sources

The usefulness and reliability of the Amarna Letters as evidence for the nature and extent of the Egyptian ‘empire’, and the foreign policies of Amenhotep III and Akhenaten; issues of context, perspective, purpose, gaps in the evidence.

The fragmentary nature of the workers’ documents found at the site of their village, Deir el-Medina.

The usefulness of papyri and other Ramesside evidence for example ostraca and other evidence from Deir el-Medina.

Changing interpretations of the sources over time to an understanding of the period, for example new discoveries, research and technologies.

Changing interpretations of the diplomatic letters, legal and other documents and what they reveal about imperialism, diplomacy and governance in this period, for example the interpretations of historians (Gardiner, Aldred and Redford).

The evidence from the discovery of KV5 for the role of the royal family and governance in this period.

Interpretations about the reasons for the decline of the New Kingdom, including corruption, dynastic problems and the invasion of the Sea Peoples.

The Athenian Agora and Acropolis, 514 – 399 BC

Students study the Agora and the Acropolis in the period of the 514-399 BC, with particular reference to the remains at these sites, and other relevant sources

The geographic and historical context

The location, main features and layout of the city Athens, including the Agora, Acropolis and the topography of Attica.

An overview of the history of the Agora (since the 6th century BC) and the Acropolis (since Neolithic times).

The nature and range of sources for the period and identification of key issues related to the investigation of the sources (for example authentication, excavation, reconstruction and/or conservation).

The key excavations that have taken place at these sites,the changing methods used and the arguments for and against carrying out further excavation at these sites.

The key archaeological and written sources for the period, for example temples, theatres, sculpture, reliefs, the kleroterion, inscriptions, and the writings of Herodotus, Euripides, Sophocles, Aristophanes, and Xenophon.

The difficulties in conserving the Agora and Acropolis, including previous damage from conflicts, vegetation, tourism, acid rain, water damage and the economic cost of restoration, including Greek and international efforts.

Ethical issues, including the Parthenon Sculptures controversy and the arguments for and against their return; debates about the extent of reconstruction, for example the work on the Stoa of Attalos, and the restoration work on the Acropolis; and access to antiquities.

The historical period

An overview of significant events in the early history of Athens in this period, including the assassination of Hipparchus in the Agora in 514 BC and the Spartan siege of the Acropolis (508 – 507 BC).

The role of the Agora and the Acropolis in Athenian political life: the workings of Athenian democracy, including the rights and obligations of Athenian citizens, what Athenians thought about their democracy, the citizen assembly, the jury system and law courts; Pericles’ building program.

The importance of the Agora in Athenian economic life.

The Athenian class system, including relations between different groups in Athenian society (knights, women, slaves and relations between, men and women, young and old, wealthy and poor).

The development of religious and cultural life of Athens, for example the Parthenon and theatre of Dionysus.

The significance of key events in the period, including the Persian sack of Athens (480 – 479 BC) and the plague at Athens during the Peloponnesian War (431 – 404 BC).

The aims and influence of Socrates, the trial and his death in 399 BC and what it reveals about the Athenian political scene at the time.

The limitations, reliability and evaluation of the sources

The incomplete nature of the evidence, for example the practice of Athenian democracy.

The contribution of sculpture, pottery, inscriptions and other literary sources to an understanding of life in Athens, for example Aristophanes’ plays The Wasps, The Frogs and The Acharnians.

Difficulties of interpretation of evidence as a result of damage to, or removal of, artefacts.

Changing interpretations of the sources over time to an understanding of the period, for example new discoveries, research and technologies.

The contribution of the American School in Athens to the study of the Agora and of the Greeks and international archaeologists to the excavation and study of the Acropolis.

Interpretations of the identifications (for example of the Stoa Poikile in the Agora), uses and dating of buildings over time.

The interpretations and meaning of sculpted friezes and scenes on black and red figured pottery.

The interpretations of the trial and death of Socrates.

Athens, Sparta and the Peloponnesian War 435 – 404 BC

Students study the Peloponnesian War in the period 435 – 404 BC, with particular reference to Thucydides’ The Peloponnesian War, Books I-VII, and other relevant sources.

The geographic and historical context

The location and topography of Laconia (Sparta) and Attica (Athens).

An overview of the origins and characteristics of the city-states of Athens and Sparta and their alliances.

The nature and range of sources for the period and identification of key issues related to the investigation of the sources (for example authentication, excavation, reconstruction and/or conservation).

The key archaeological and written sources for the period, for example the writings of Thucydides, The Old Oligarch, Xenophon, Athenian tribute lists, inscriptions, Aristophanes’ plays, Plutarch’s Lives, the remains of fortifications and graves.

The nature of Thucydides’ text and techniques, including his research methods, his use of speeches, and the extent to which he can be regarded as a ‘scientific historian’.

Issues arising from Thucydides’ editing and possible revisions of Book II and V, and the incomplete nature of the work.

The historical period

The causes of the Peloponnesian War, including the Megarian decree, the Potidean revolt and Thucydides’ theory of aitiai and prophasis.

The significance of the Archidamian War, including key events for example the Plague, the Mytilenean revolt, Pylos and Sphacteria, Amphipolis; and key individuals for example Pericles, Cleon and Nicias.

The effectiveness of the Peace of Nicias, including the terms, shifting alliances and key individuals for example Nicias, Alcibiades and Hyberbolus.

The significance of the Sicilian Expedition as a turning point in the war, including key events for example the Mutilation of the Hermae, battles between the Athenians and the Syracusans; and key individuals for example Nicias, Alcibiades and Gylippus.

The failure of the Oligarchic Coup, including the role of the Samian fleet and of individuals for example Alcibiades, Pisander, Thrasybulus, Theramenes and Tissaphernes.

The difficulties of the Decelean/Ionian War for Athens, including the occupation of Decelea, the revolt of Ionian allies, alliances between Sparta and Persia, and key individuals for example Alcibiades, Tissaphernes and Pharnabazus.

The contribution of the sources to an understanding of the motivation of key individuals for example Pericles, Cleon, Brasidas, Nicias and Alcibiades.

The significance of the sources for understanding the nature of Athenian democracy and Athenian imperialism; the nature of Athens’ relations with her allies, and attitudes towards the Athenian Empire.

The limitations, reliability and evaluation of the sources

Thucydides’ background/exile and how it influenced his writing of The Peloponnesian War, and the influence of the tragic tradition on his writing.

Thucydides’ motivations for writing The Peloponnesian War, including his revision of the contemporary view that Pericles was responsible for the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War, as well as the reasons for Athens’ failures.

Thucydides’ views about the Athenian Empire and radical democracy, including his views on demagogues and demos; the evidence of his bias towards or against key individuals for example Pericles, Cleon, Nicias and Alcibiades.

The nature and contribution of other sources, to an understanding of Thucydides’ work and the Peloponnesian War.

Changing interpretations of the sources over time to an understanding of the period, for example new discoveries, research and technologies.

Changing interpretations over time of key events in The Peloponnesian War, for example Cornford’s and de Ste. Croix’s consideration of economic factors as a cause of the Peloponnesian War.

Revised dating of decrees (for example Coinage and Thoudippus), and the implications for interpreting Thucydides’ work.

Different interpretations of the methods and motives of Thucydides, for example Kagan’s interpretation of Thucydides’ work as the first revisionist history.

The Julio-Claudians and ‘Imperial’ Rome, AD 14 – 68

Students study Imperial Rome under the Julio-Claudians in the period AD 14 − 68, with particular reference to Tacitus’ The Annals, Books I-XVI, and other relevant sources.

The geographic and historical context

The location of Rome and the main features and layout of the city in the Julio-Claudian period.

An overview of the nature of Roman governance and imperial administration at the start of the period, including the Princeps, the Senate, the Assembly, the imperial family, the praetorian guard, and provincial governors.

The nature and range of sources for the period and identification of key issues related to the investigation of the sources (for example authentication, excavation, reconstruction and/or conservation).

The extent of archaeological excavation in Rome and the difficulties in uncovering new evidence.

The key archaeological and written sources for the period, for example statues, coinage, buildings and the writings of Tacitus, Suetonius, Cassius Dio.

The key ancient writers of the period and the difficulties posed by their perspective and selection of evidence.

The historical period

The reign of Tiberius and the role of key events, including the mutiny of the legions in Germany, internal conspiracies, the issue of succession, and the role of key individuals, for example Tiberius, Germanicus, Sejanus and Agrippina the Elder.

The significance of the reign of Caligula, including the circumstances of his accession, the nature of his reign, and his assassination.

The reign of Claudius, including the role of the Praetorian Guard in his accession, the expansion of the Empire to Britain, his key reforms and the role of influential individuals, including Agrippina the Younger, Silanus and Messalina.

The reign of Nero and the role of key events, including Rome’s relationship with Parthia, the Great Fire, the Pisonian Conspiracy, the rebellion of Vindex and Galba, Nero’s Golden House, and the role of influential individuals, for example Agrippina the Younger and Seneca.

The significance of key events of the reign of Tiberius, including campaigns and the expansion of the Roman Empire.

The role and motivations of key individuals in the period, for example Tiberius, Sejanius, Agrippina the Elder, Caligula, Claudius and Nero.

The limitations, reliability and evaluation of the sources

The personal background and life of Tacitus, including the Roman Empire under the Flavian Dynasty (Domitian’s ‘reign of terror’, the reign of Trajan, and the role of the Praetorian Guard); and its influence on his writing of The Annals.

The nature and purpose of Tacitus’ writing of The Annals, including his use of contemporary sources (the minutes of the Senate, decrees, speeches of Tiberius) and the limitations of Tacitus’ work related to the missing and incomplete nature of Books V, XI and XVI.

The reliability of Tacitus’ The Annals and other sources for an understanding of the nature of Roman politics, the balance of power between Emperor and Senate, the motivations of individuals, and the importance of the military, and the corruption of governing classes.

Changing interpretations of the sources over time to an understanding of the period, for example new discoveries, research and technologies.

Historians’ changing interpretations of The Annals I-XVI and key events from the reign of the Julio-Claudians, and the methods and motives of ancient writers of the period.

Interpretations of the role and influence of women and imperial freedmen in the Julio-Claudian period.

Historian’s changing interpretations over time of Nero.

Pompeii and Herculaneum, 80 BC – AD 79

Students study Pompeii and Herculaneum in the period, 80 BC – AD 79, with particular reference to the remains at these sites, and other relevant sources.

The geographic and historical context

The location of Pompeii and Herculaneum in Campania, the volcanic plateau, its strategic location between north and south, and its proximity to the sea.

An overview of the history of Pompeii and Herculaneum since the 8th century BC up to the eruption of AD 79, including the establishment of Pompeii as a Roman colony in AD 80, earthquake activity, and the various stages of the eruption of Mt Vesuvius.

The nature and range of sources and identification of key issues related to the investigation of the sources (for example authentication, excavation, reconstruction and/or conservation).

The nature and effects of the volcanic activity and eruption of AD 79 on the evidence that has survived from Pompeii and Herculaneum.

The key archaeological and written sources for the period, for example public and private buildings, mosaics, statues, villas, baths, shops, tombs, human and animal remains, official inscriptions and the writings of Pliny, Seneca and Martial.

The major archaeological excavations that took place at each site during the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries, with a particular focus on the purposes of the archaeological excavations (for example treasure hunting and scientific investigation) and the methods of archaeologists (for example Weber, Fiorelli, Mau, Spinazzola, Maiuri and Guzzo).

The difficulties involved in the protection and management of Pompeii and Herculaneum, including exposure to the elements, impact of tourism, the arguments for and against carrying out further excavation at these sites, and the concern about the scientific study of human remains and display of body casts.

The historical period

The plans, streets and roads of Pompeii and Herculaneum and what they reveal about town planning.

The circumstances of the eruption of AD 79, including Pliny’s account of the eruption of Mt Vesuvius.

The nature and development of political life in Pompeii and Herculaneum, including the significance of fora, temples, basilicas, theatres and graffiti as sources of evidence.

The important features of the economy, including commerce, industries and occupations.

The position and role of different groups in society, including the position and role of men, women, freedmen and slaves.

The evidence at Pompeii and Herculaneum for religious beliefs and practices, for example wall paintings, mosaics, statues and inscriptions.

The key features of everyday life, for example leisure activities, food and dining, water supply, sanitation and health.

The influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures on life in Pompeii and Herculaneum.

How human and animal remains have contributed to a better understanding of the people who lived in these cities.

The limitations, reliability and evaluation of the sources

The state of preservation of the papyrus scrolls from the Villa of the Papyri

Difficulties of interpretation of evidence as a result of damage to or removal of frescos and artefacts.

How ancient writers and writing (for example Seneca, Strabo, Martial, and Pliny), inscriptions and graffiti contribute to our understanding of life in the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.

Changing interpretations of the sources over time to an understanding of the period, for example new discoveries, research and technologies.

Changing interpretations of the uses of public and private spaces, and the meaning of frescoes.

The importance of the work of Australians at the sites (for example Lazer, Mackenzie-Clark, Allison, Ellis, Jean-Paul Descoeudres and Frank Sear) in better understanding life in the cities of Pompeii and Herculaneum.

The role of new technologies in the study of the sites, including computers, spectral and digital imaging, and laser scanning.

The significance of ONE of the following: the Herculaneum Conservation Project, the Philodemus Project, the Anglo-American Project in Pompeii (Bradford University), in providing evidence about how people in Pompeii and Herculaneum lived.

Ancient History – Unit 3 and Unit 4

Knowledge and understanding

A.

• evaluates the extent of change and continuity related to the key institutions, structures and features of ancient societies and the significance of change for society;
• analyses causes contributing to change and continuity in particular contexts and assesses their relative importance;
• evaluates the possible motivations, and the responses of different people to events and developments, and how they were influenced by the historical context within which they lived;
• assesses the significance of issues associated with the evidence for historical periods;
• evaluates representations and interpretations to explain historical issues and to evaluate contestability, validity and usefulness.

B.

• explains the extent of change and continuity related to the key institutions, structures and features of ancient societies and analyses the significance of change for society;
• analyses causes contributing to change and continuity in particular contexts and their relative importance;
• explains and accounts for the possible motivations, and the responses of different people to events and developments;
• explains the significant issues associated with the evidence for an analysis for historical periods;
• analyses representations and interpretations to explain historical issues and to identify contestability, validity and usefulness.

C.

• explains the extent of change and continuity related to the key institutions, structures and features of ancient societies and the impact of change on society;
• describes causes contributing to change and continuity in particular contexts and their relative importance;
• explains and accounts for the possible motivations, and the responses of different people to events and developments;
• explains the significant issues associated with the evidence for an analysis of historical periods;
• describes representations and interpretations to identify contestability, validity and usefulness.

D.

• describes the key institutions, structures and features of ancient societies and how they changed over time;
• describes causes contributing to change and continuity in particular contexts;
• identifies the responses of people to events and developments;
• identifies some issues associated with the evidence for events and developments;
• describes interpretations and representations.

E.

• identifies features of ancient societies;
• identifies examples of change and continuity in particular contexts;
• identifies the individuals and groups involved in events and developments;
• identifies some sources for a historical period;
• identifies interpretations and representations.

Skills

A.

• develops focus questions to frame an inquiry and conducts comprehensive research using a wide range of sources and methods;
• selects and applies relevant evidence based on substantiated evaluation of the reliability and usefulness of sources;
• evaluates different historical interpretations and representations with analysis of the strength of the evidence;
• develops convincing historical arguments and synthesises evidence from different sources, to support particular claims with valid and sustained reasoning, and with an assessment of alternative interpretations;
• communicates complex ideas with coherent and sustained arguments with analysis of evidence, using appropriate language and accurate referencing.

B.

• develops focus questions to frame an inquiry and conducts research using a range of sources and methods;
• selects and applies relevant evidence based on evaluation of the reliability and usefulness of sources;
• evaluates different historical interpretations and representations by selecting and using relevant evidence from a range of sources;
• develops convincing historical arguments and synthesises evidence from different sources, with valid reasoning, and with an explanation of alternative interpretations;
• communicates complex ideas and coherent arguments using appropriate evidence, language and accurate referencing.

C.

• develops focus questions for an inquiry and conducts research using sources and methods;
• selects and applies relevant evidence based on evaluation of sources;
• analyses different historical interpretations and representations by selecting and using relevant evidence;
• develops reasoned historical arguments using and synthesising evidence from different sources, and with reference to some interpretations;
• communicates ideas and arguments using appropriate evidence, language and accurate referencing.

D.

• uses inquiry questions to conduct research derived from sources;
• uses evidence derived from sources;
• describes historical interpretations and representations using evidence;
• develops historical accounts using evidence from a limited number of sources;
• communicates ideas and arguments with referencing.

E.

• uses inquiry questions to conduct research;
• uses sources to research;
• identifies viewpoints about the past;
• recounts historical events and identifies a limited number of sources;
• communicates ideas and information with minimal referencing.

Unit 3: Land cover transformations

This unit focuses on the changing biophysical cover of the earth’s surface, its impact on global climate and biodiversity, and the creation of anthropogenic biomes. In doing so, it examines the processes causing change in the earth’s land cover. These processes may include: deforestation, the expansion and intensification of agriculture, rangeland modification, land and soil degradation, irrigation, land drainage, land reclamation, urban expansion and mining.

These processes have altered local and regional climates and hydrology, damaged ecosystem services, contributed to the loss of biodiversity, and altered soils. The scale at which these processes now occur is so extensive that there no longer exist any truly ‘natural’ environments. All environments are, to a greater or lesser extent, modified by human activity. This focus on anthropogenic biomes differentiates Geography from Earth and Environmental Science. The processes of land cover transformation have also changed the global climate through their interaction with atmospheric processes, and climate change is, in turn, producing further transformations in land cover.

The unit integrates aspects of physical and environmental Geography to provide students with a comprehensive and integrated understanding of processes related to land cover change, and their local and global environmental consequences. It also examines and evaluates the ways people seek to reverse the negative effects of land cover change.

This unit includes an overview of land cover change and two depth studies: one focusing on the interrelationship between land cover and either global climate change or biodiversity loss, and one focusing on a program designed to address land cover change.

The scale of study for this unit, unless specified, can range from local to global, as appropriate. There is, for example, the requirement that students investigate the impacts of land cover change on local and regional environments; a local land cover change initiative designed to address the issue of climate change of biodiversity loss; and the evaluation of program to address land cover change. Each of these provides opportunities for fieldwork.

In undertaking these depth studies, students develop an understanding about using and applying geographical inquiry, tools such as spatial technologies, and skills to investigate human–environment systems.

By the end of this unit, students will:

• understand the nature, extent and causes of the changing land cover of the earth’s surface, including the presence of anthropogenic biomes, and evaluate projections of future changes in global land cover;
• understand the local and regional effects of land cover change on ecosystems, and the interrelationships between land cover change and global climate change or biodiversity loss;
• understand and apply key geographical concepts – including place, space, environment, interconnection, sustainability, scale and change – as part of a geographical inquiry;
• apply geographical inquiry and a range of skills, including spatial technologies and fieldwork, to investigate land cover change and its consequences;
• evaluate the environmental, economic and social benefits and costs of a program aimed at responding to the negative impacts of land cover change.

Geographical Inquiry and Skills

Observing, questioning and planning:

• formulates geographical inquiry questions;
• plans a geographical inquiry with clearly defined aims and appropriate methodology.

Collecting, recording, evaluating and representing:

• collects geographical information incorporating ethical protocols from a range of primary and secondary sources;
• records observations in a range of graphic representations using spatial technologies and information and communication technologies;
• evaluates the reliability, validity and usefulness of geographical sources and information.

Interpreting, analysing and concluding:

• analyses geographical information and data from a range of primary and secondary sources and a variety of perspectives to draw reasoned conclusions and make generalisations;
• identifies and analyses trends and patterns, infers relationships, and makes predictions and inferences.

Communicating:

• communicates geographical information, ideas, issues and arguments using appropriate written and/or oral, cartographic and graphic forms;
• uses geographical language in appropriate contexts to demonstrate geographical knowledge and understanding.

Reflecting and responding:

• applies generalisations to evaluate alternative responses to geographical issues at a variety of scales;
• proposes individual and collective action taking into account environmental, social and economic factors; and predicts the outcomes of the proposed action.

Geographical Knowledge and Understanding

Overview: nature, extent, causes and consequences of land cover change.

Reference should be made to global forests, cropland, rangelands, pasture and urban land cover using illustrative examples drawn from different regions and countries and at different scales.

The identification and classification of land cover change using remotely sensed images and aerial photographs.

The interpretation of data sourced from spatial technologies and fieldwork to explain the nature, rate, extent and consequences of land cover change.

World population growth, growing affluence, advances in technology and their impact on the rate and extent of land cover change and biodiversity.

The differences in the process of land cover change between countries due to factors such as government policy, institutional arrangements, land ownership, type of economy, ideology and culture, in addition to the range of physical factors.

Methods of projecting changes in land cover using spatial modelling, incorporating both environmental and socioeconomic variables.

Indigenous peoples’ land management practices and their impact on land cover over time including those of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

The relationship between land cover change and climate change and the long-term impact of climate change on land cover.

The impacts of land cover change on local and regional environments.

Human-generated land cover change and its consequences including: the competitive advantages of indigenous and introduced species; the balance within each of these groups; and the effects such changes might have on land cover changes and biodiversity.

The concept of anthropogenic biomes and its implications for our understanding of the functioning of the world’s ecosystems.

Students complete BOTH depth studies which are to be taught with the requisite geographical inquiry and skills described as part of this unit:

Depth study of the interrelationship between land cover change and changes in either global climate or biodiversity.

A depth study to investigate the links between changes in land cover and changes in global climate or biodiversity:

Climate change

The causes, rate and projected impacts of global climate change.

The interrelationships between land cover change and climate change, for example, the impacts of land cover loss on surface reflectivity (albedo) and the process of natural carbon sequestration.

The effects of climate change on land cover, for example, vegetation, ice sheets, glaciers and coral reefs.

A local initiative designed to address the effects of global climate change on land cover.

Biodiversity

The causes, rate and projected impacts of declining biodiversity.

The interrelationships between land cover change and biodiversity loss, for example, the processes of evolutionary diversification and species extinction and their implications for land cover in the future.

The effects of biodiversity loss on ecosystem services and species, and ecosystem and genetic diversity.

A local initiative designed to address the effects of biodiversity loss or change.

Depth study of a program to address land cover change

A depth study, using fieldwork and/or secondary sources, to investigate how land cover change is being addressed and evaluated.

Students select ONE existing program that addresses land cover change in order to investigate:

• approaches to land cover restoration and rehabilitation, and the mitigation of future land cover changes, for example, debt-for-nature swaps and preservation strategies;
• a program designed to address the issue of land cover change and its consequences at a local scale (for example, coast dune rehabilitation, urban zoning regulations);
• the selected program’s environmental, economic, and social benefits and costs;
• an assessment of the program’s effectiveness;
• an evaluation of alternative approaches to the restoration and rehabilitation of the area being studied using the concept of sustainability to determine which approach has the potential to address the issue into the future.

Unit 4: Global transformations

This unit focuses on the process of international integration (globalisation) as a conceptual ‘lens’ through which to investigate issues in human geography. In doing so, it integrates the sub disciplines of economic and cultural geography, and political geography. Economic geography involves study of the changing location, distribution and spatial organisation of economic activities across the world, while cultural geography focuses on the patterns and interactions of human culture, both material and non-material. Both sub disciplines make an important contribution to our understanding of the human organisation of space. Political geography examines the spatial consequences of power at all scales from the personal to global.

The topic provides students with an understanding of the economic and cultural transformations taking place in the world today, the spatial outcomes of these processes, and their political and social consequences. It will better enable them to make sense of the dynamic world in which they will live and work. It will also allow them to be active participants in the public discourses and debate related to such matters.

The unit is based on the reality that we live in an increasingly interconnected world. This is a world in which advances in transport and telecommunications technologies have not only transformed global patterns of production and consumption but also facilitated the diffusion of ideas and cultures. Of particular interest is the ways in which people adapt and respond to these changes.

Students have the opportunity to explore the ideas developed in the unit through an investigation of the changes taking place in the spatial distribution of the production and consumption of a selected commodity, good or service or the study of an example of cultural diffusion, adoption and adaptation. They also investigate the ways people either embrace, adapt to, or resist the forces of international integration.

This unit includes an overview of international integration (globalisation) and a choice of depth studies: one focusing on economic integration, and one focusing on international cultural integration.

While the scale of study in this unit begins with the global, locally based examples can be used to enhance students’ conceptual understanding. The scale of study for the selected depth study, unless specified, can range from local to global, as appropriate.

In undertaking these studies, students develop an understanding about using and applying geographical inquiry, tools such as spatial technologies, and skills to investigate the transformations taking place throughout the world.

By the end of this unit, students will:

• understand the nature and causes of international integration and its spatial, economic, political and social consequences;
• understand the ways people adapt to and resist the forces of international integration;
• understand and apply key geographical concepts – including place, space, environment, interconnection, sustainability, scale and change – as part of a geographical inquiry;
• think geographically, based on an understanding of the complexities of an increasingly interdependent world;
• apply geographical inquiry and a range of skills, including spatial technologies and fieldwork, to investigate the complexity of the integrated world;
• evaluate alternative futures drawing on an understanding of an integrated global society.

Geographical Inquiry and Skills

Observing, questioning and planning:

• formulates geographical inquiry questions;
• plans a geographical inquiry with clearly defined aims and appropriate methodology.

Collecting, recording, evaluating and representing:

• collects geographical information incorporating ethical protocols from a range of primary and secondary sources;
• records observations in a range of graphic representations using spatial technologies and information and communication technologies;
• evaluates the reliability, validity and usefulness of geographical sources and information.

Interpreting, analysing and concluding:

• analyses geographical information and data from a range of primary and secondary sources and a variety of perspectives to draw reasoned conclusions and make generalisations;
• identifies and analyses trends and patterns, infers relationships, and makes predictions and inferences.

Communicating:

• communicates geographical information, ideas, issues and arguments using appropriate written and/or oral, cartographic and graphic forms;
• uses geographical language in appropriate contexts to demonstrate geographical knowledge and understanding.

Reflecting and responding:

• applies generalisations to evaluate alternative responses to geographical issues at a variety of scales;
• proposes individual and collective action, taking into account environmental, social and economic factors; and predicts the outcomes of the proposed action;

Geographical Knowledge and Understanding

Overview of international integration

The process of international integration, especially as it relates to the transformations taking place in the spatial distribution of production and consumption of commodities and services, and the diffusion and adaptation of ideas, meanings and values that continuously transform and renew cultures.

Advances in transport and telecommunications technologies as a facilitator of international integration including their role in the expansion of world trade, the emergence of global financial markets and the dissemination of ideas and culture through corporate, retail outlets, and the hubs of international literature, music, film and media.

The economic and cultural importance of world cities in the integrated global economy and their emergence as centres of cultural innovation, transmission and integration of new ideas about the plurality of life throughout the world.

The re-emergence of China and India as global economic powers and the relative economic decline but sustained cultural influence of the United States of America and Europe.

Students complete ONE of the depth studies which is to be taught with the requisite geographical inquiry and skills described as part of this unit:

A. International economic integration

A depth study, using fieldwork and/or secondary sources, to investigate the changing spatial distribution of production and consumption (and, where appropriate, re-use) of a selected commodity, good or service.

Students should make reference to ONE of the following:

• a mineral ore or fossil-based energy resource;
• a food or fibre-based commodity;
• a complex manufactured commodity;
• a commodity typical of the ‘weightless’ or service-based economy.

For the selected commodity, good or service, investigate:

• the changes occurring in the spatial distribution of its production and consumption, and the geographical factors responsible for these changes;
• the role played by technological advances in transport and/or telecommunications in facilitating these changes;
• the role played by the reduction or elimination of the barriers to its movement between countries;
• the role played by enterprises in the internationalisation of its production and consumption;
• implications of these changes for people, places and the biophysical environment at a variety of scales including the local;
• likely future changes in the nature and spatial distribution of its production and consumption;
• the ways people and places embrace, adapt to, or resist the forces of international economic integration;
• the spatial, economic, social and geopolitical consequences of these responses.

B. International cultural integration

A depth study, using fieldwork and/or secondary sources, to investigate an example of cultural diffusion, adoption and adaptation, and its consequences for the cultural geography of places.

Reference should be made to ONE element of culture such as fashion, a sport or leisure activity, music, religion, language, architecture, or political ideas.

For the selected element of culture investigate the following as applicable:

• the process of diffusion and its spatial outcomes;
• the role played by technological advances in transport and/or telecommunications in its diffusion;
• the role played by transnational institutions and/or corporations in its dispersion;
• the role played by media and emerging technologies in its generation and dispersion;
• implications of these changes for peoples and places at a range of scales including the local;
• likely future changes in its nature and spatial distribution;
• the ways people embrace, adapt to, or resist international cultural integration;
• the spatial, economic, social and geopolitical consequences of these responses.

Geography – Unit 3 and Unit 4

Knowledge and understanding

A.

• analyses how processes of change have spatial consequences in places and environments across a range of scales, and evaluates the role of context;
• analyses interconnections between people, places and environments, and evaluates their geographical significance and consequences;
• analyses spatial distributions, patterns and associations at a range of scales and in different contexts, and makes reasoned predictions about plausible future changes;
• evaluates alternative views on a geographical issue or challenge, and analyses how decision-making is informed by interacting environmental, economic and social factors at a range of scales.

B.

• explains how processes of change have spatial consequences in places and environments at a range of scales, and explains the role of context;
• explains interconnections between people, places and environments, and analyses their geographical significance and consequences;
• explains spatial distributions, patterns and associations at a range of scales and in different contexts, and predicts plausible future changes;
• analyses alternative views on a geographical issue or challenge and explains how decision-making is informed by interacting environmental, economic and social factors.

C.

• explains how processes of change have consequences in places and environments at a range of scales and in different contexts;
• describes interconnections between people, places and environments, and explains their geographical significance and consequences;
• describes spatial distributions, patterns and associations at a range of scales and in different contexts, and predicts future changes;
• explains alternative views on a geographical issue or challenge and describes how decision-making is informed by environmental, economic and social factors.

D.

• describes how processes of change affect places and environments at different scales;
• identifies interconnections between people, places and environments, and describes their geographical significance and consequences;
• describes spatial distributions, patterns and associations at a range of scales and in different contexts;
• describes alternative views on a geographical issue or challenge, and identifies the role of environmental, economic and social factors in making decisions.

E.

• describes changes in places and environments with limited reference to scale;
• identifies interconnections between people, places and environments, and outlines their consequences;
• describes spatial distributions, patterns and associations;
• describes alternative views on a geographical issue or challenge.

Inquiry and Skills

A.

• plans and undertakes comprehensive, independent geographical inquiries to collect and analyse relevant data and information based on a critical evaluation of a range of reliable and useful sources using valid methods;
• selects, constructs and uses a range of appropriate representations to describe and analyse change in relationships and spatial patterns and trends over time and at a range of scales;
• evaluates information and multivariable data to draw evidence-based conclusions that identify limitations and explain anomalies;
• communicates complex ideas and coherent and sustained explanations effectively, selecting appropriate language and forms for specific audiences and purposes;
• uses a range of reasoned criteria to propose and justify action in response to a contemporary geographical issue or challenge, and analyses probable outcomes of the action over a range of spatial and temporal scales.

B.

• plans and undertakes independent geographical inquiries selecting and using relevant methods and data and information based on a critical evaluation of a range of reliable and useful sources;
• selects, constructs and uses appropriate representations to describe relationships and explain change in spatial patterns and trends over time and at different scales;
• analyses information and multivariable data to draw evidence-based conclusions that identify limitations;
• communicates complex ideas and coherent explanations clearly, selecting appropriate language and forms for audience and purpose;
• uses a range of appropriate criteria to propose and justify action in response to a contemporary geographical issue or challenge and describes a range of probable outcomes of the action over time.

C.

• undertakes independent geographical inquiries, selecting and using relevant methods and data and information from a range of appropriate sources;
• selects, constructs and uses appropriate representations to describe relationships and spatial patterns and trends over time;
• interprets information and multivariable data to draw evidence-based conclusions;
• communicates ideas and explanations clearly, using appropriate language and forms;
• uses appropriate criteria to propose plausible action in response to a contemporary geographical issue or challenge, and describes possible outcomes of the action over time.

D.

• undertakes guided geographical inquiries using some appropriate sources;
• constructs and uses representations to describe relationships and spatial patterns and trends;
• interprets information and data to draw conclusions;
• communicates ideas and information using appropriate language;
• proposes action in response to a contemporary issue and describes some of the possible outcomes.

E.

• undertakes guided inquiries using limited sources;
• constructs and uses simple representations to describe relationships and identify simple patterns and trends;
• describes trends or patterns in data;
• communicates ideas and information in a range of forms;
• proposes action in response to a contemporary issue and identifies some of the possible outcome.

Unit 3: Modern Nations in the 20th century

This unit examines the characteristics of modern nations in the 20th century; the crises that confronted nations, their responses to these crises and the different paths nations have taken to fulfil their goals. Students study the characteristics of TWO nations, including ONE from List 1 and ONE from List 2. In their study of a List 1 nation, students investigate crises that challenged the stability of government. In their study of a List 2 nation, students study the path of development that was taken and the social, economic and political order that was established. In their study of both nations, students examine the ways in which the nations dealt with internal divisions and external threats. They emerge with a deeper understanding of the character of modern nations. The key conceptual understandings covered in this unit are the reliability and usefulness of evidence; cause and effect; change and continuity; significance; empathy; contestability; and changing representations and interpretations.

By the end of this unit, students:

• understand the characteristics of modern nations, the internal divisions and external threats that they encountered, and the different experiences of individuals and groups within those states;
• understand the significance of the changes experienced by modern nations and the different paths of development they have taken;
• apply key concepts as part of a historical inquiry, including evidence, continuity and change, cause and effect, significance, empathy, perspectives and contestability;
• use historical skills to investigate the history of selected nations, frame questions for research, determine the reliability and usefulness of sources and evidence, explore different interpretations of the past, and use a range of evidence to analyse interpretations and representations, and communicate historical arguments.

Historical skills

All the following skills will be studied during this unit. Relevant skills will be emphasised for each topic.

Chronology, terms and concepts.

Identify links between events to understand the nature and significance of causation, change and continuity over time.

Use historical terms and concepts in appropriate contexts to demonstrate historical knowledge and understanding.

Historical questions and research

Formulate, test and modify propositions to investigate historical issues.

Frame questions to guide inquiry and develop a coherent research plan for inquiry.

Identify, locate and organise relevant information from a range of primary and secondary sources.

Practise ethical scholarship when conducting research.

Analysis and use of sources

Identify the origin, purpose and context of historical sources.

Analyse, interpret and synthesise evidence from different types of sources to develop and sustain a historical argument.

Evaluate the reliability, usefulness and contestable nature of sources to develop informed judgements that support a historical argument.

Perspectives and interpretations

Analyse and account for the different perspectives of individuals and groups in the past.

Evaluate critically different historical interpretations of the past, how they evolved, and how they are shaped by the historian’s perspective.

Evaluate contested views about the past to understand the provisional nature of historical knowledge and to arrive at reasoned and supported conclusions.

Explanation and communication

Develop texts that integrate appropriate evidence from a range of sources to explain the past and to support and refute arguments.

Communicate historical understanding by selecting and using text forms appropriate to the purpose and audience.

Apply appropriate referencing techniques accurately and consistently.

Historical knowledge and understanding

Students study TWO of the following topic electives, one from List 1 and one from List 2, which are to be taught with the requisite historical skills described at the start of this unit.

United States of America, 1917 – 1945	Japan, 1931 – 1967
Australia, 1918 – 1949	India, 1947 – 1974
Germany, 1918 – 1945	Indonesia, 1942 – 1974
Russia and the Soviet Union, 1917 – 1945	China, 1937 – 1976

United States of America, 1917 –1945 (Entry into WWI – End of WWII)

An overview of the United States of America in 1917 as background information for more intensive study of the period.

The nature and causes of internal divisions within American society and the aims and beliefs of different groups: for example African Americans, urban workers, rural workers, immigrants, industrialists and members of Indian Nations; and the consequences of divisions for example the rise of the Ku Klux Klan, the Scopes ‘Monkey’ Trial and the Trial of Ossian Sweet.

The significance of prohibition and the ‘Jazz Age’ in shaping American values, for example music, film and fashion.

The consequences of the Great Depression for different groups and the effectiveness of political responses, including the New Deal.

The changing nature of American foreign policy between 1917 and 1945, including its international alliances and relationships; and the policy of isolationism.

The nature and scope of America’s war effort in Europe, Asia and the Pacific (1941-1945), including the reasons for US involvement in World War II, and the decision to use the atomic bomb.

The role and impact of significant individuals in the period, for example Woodrow Wilson, Herbert Hoover, Harry S. Truman, F. D. Roosevelt, Booker T Washington, Jessie Owens, Amelia Earhart.

Australia, 1918 –1949 (End of WWI – Election of Menzies)

An overview of Australia in 1918 as background information for more intensive study of the period.

The adjustment of national priorities in the 1920s, including the tensions between urbanisation, industrialisation and rural development; the difficulties of soldier settlement; the exclusion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples; and the changing role of women.

The impact of the Great Depression on different groups within Australian society and the effectiveness of political responses to the crisis.

The changing nature and significance of Australia’s foreign policy from 1916-1949.

The nature and scope of Australia’s war effort in Europe, Asia and the Pacific (1939-1945).

The key features of post-war reconstruction, including industrialisation, immigration, the provision of social welfare, and attitudes and policies towards Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, and women.

The impact of the rise of communism, its influence on the election of Robert Menzies and the Coalition in 1949, and the contrasting economic and social policies offered at the 1949 election.

The role and impact of significant individuals in the period, for example W.M. Hughes, Sir John Monash, Vida Goldstein, Ben Chifley, John Curtin, Robert Menzies.

Germany, 1918 –1945 (End of WWI – End of World War II)

An overview of Germany in 1918 as background for more intensive study of the period.

The democratic changes under the Weimar Government and reasons for its failure to deal with social, political and economic problems.

The reasons for the Nazi Party’s rise to power, including the Treaty of Versailles, the impact of the Great Depression, the nature of Nazi ideology and hostility to communism, the ability of Hitler and the Nazi Party to utilise popular fears, and the Party’s organisational and tactical skills.

The nature and effects of key aspects of the Nazi state, including military mobilisation, Lebensraum (living space), propaganda, terror and repression (SA and SS), the Hitler Youth, and policy on religion.

Nazi policies of antisemitism and the promotion of the Aryan race resulting in efforts to exterminate minorities in German-controlled lands and the Holocaust.

Germany’s war effort, including its early successes and subsequent failures leading to the defeat of Germany by the Allies and the division of Germany.

The role and impact of significant individuals in Weimar and Nazi Germany, for example Gustav Stresemann, President von Hindenburg, Leni Riefenstahl, Alfred Krupp, Joseph Goebbels, Hermann Göring and Albert Speer.

Russia and the Soviet Union, 1917 – 1945 (Revolution – End of World War II)

An overview of Russia in 1917 as background for more intensive study of the period.

The internal divisions and crises within Russian society, including the causes, events and outcomes of the February and October Revolutions in 1917; the opposition to the Bolsheviks, the civil war and the reasons for the Bolshevik victory.

The significance of the struggle of Josef Stalin and Leon Trotsky for power and the reasons for the success of Stalin.

The changes that transformed Russia, including the New Economic Policy, the creation of the USSR, the Five Year plans and how they contributed to state control of the economy, forced rural collectivisation, state-created famine and the modernisation of the Soviet Union.

The different experiences of individuals and groups in the period to 1945, including peasants and factory workers, and the methods the regime employed to control them, including mobilisation and propaganda, repression, the Purges and the Great Terror.

The impact of World War II and the methods that enabled the USSR to secure victory.

The role and impact of significant individuals in the period, for example Vladimir Lenin, Leon Trotsky, Joseph Stalin, Nikolai Yezhov, Sergei Kirov, Alexandra Kollontai, Vyacheslav Molotov and Georgy Zhukov.

Japan, 1931 − 1967 (Invasion of Manchuria – Foundation Day Ceremony)

An overview of Japan in 1931 as background for more intensive study of the period.

Japan’s first invasion of Manchuria in 1931 for political, military and social reasons.

Japan during World War II, including the extent and nature of Japanese imperial expansion in Asia and the Pacific; the formation of the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere; the external threats to Japan, including tension with the USA over trade before WWII; the bombing of Pearl Harbor; the scope and nature of fighting in Asia and the Pacific during WWII; and the US atomic attacks in 1945.

The immediate post-war effects of Japan’s defeat, including opposition to democratic government; political division within the Japanese military; opposition to the Allied occupation after the war; the changes introduced during the American occupation.

The internal development of Japan after the Occupation and the nature of its foreign policy, including the nature of the constitution and political system; the terms of the US-Japan Security Treaty, and the nature of the political order that followed; and the reasons for Japan’s low-profile role in world affairs and post-war economic development to the 1960s.

Japan’s role and situation in the initial Cold War period, including membership of the UN, the limits on its military role and territorial disputes with the USSR, China, and North and South Korea.

The role and impact of significant individuals in the period, for example Hideki Tojo, Emperor Hirohito, General Douglas MacArthur, Hayato Ikeda, Eisaku Sato, Eiji Toyoda, Akio Morita, and Yoshida Shigeru.

India, 1947 – 1974 (Independence – First Nuclear Test)

An overview of India in 1947 as background for more intensive study of the period, including the impact of World War II.

The nature of the division in India that resulted in the creation of Pakistan (1947) and Bangladesh (1971), including the different paths taken by the two nations, and the response of India.

The establishment and significance of the Indian constitution (1950); the subsequent role of the Indian Congress Party, Hindu nationalism and the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru (1947-1964).

The key features and significance of the Indira Gandhi leadership and policies (1966-1974).

The changing nature of India’s foreign policy and external threats in the period, including relations with power blocs, wars with Pakistan over the disputed territory of Kashmir (1948, 1965 and 1971), recognition of Tibet as part of China, the liberation of Goa (1961), border war with China (1962), creation of Bangladesh (1971) and India’s nuclear test (1974).

The experiences of different groups and castes in India, with particular reference to Hindus, Muslims, women, Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Backward Castes.

The role and impact of significant individuals in India in the period, including Jinnah, B.R Ambedkar, Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, Rajendra Prasad and Indira Gandhi.

Indonesia, 1942 – 1974 (Japanese occupation – invasion of East Timor)

An overview of Indonesia in 1942 as background for more intensive study of the period, including the Indonesian nationalist movement in the 1930s and the idea of Indonesia.

The reasons for the Japanese occupation of Indonesia, the nature of the occupation and its effects on different groups, including forced labourers; the effects of the occupation on Indonesian nationalism; the declaration of Indonesian independence in 1945 and its aftermath; and the Netherlands’ attempts to re-establish colonial rule.

The background, role and significance of Sukarno’s presidency, with particular reference to ‘Guided democracy’; the reasons for the growth of the Indonesian Communist Party; and the role of the military.

The reasons for the deterioration in Indonesia’s economy up to 1965 and its impact on the population, including hyperinflation and food shortages.

The nature and causes of internal divisions in Indonesian society, including the ethnic and religious differences, and the role of Chinese Indonesians.

Indonesian foreign policy to 1965, including the Bandung Conference, relations with the USSR, China and the USA, confrontation with Malaysia and the annexation of West Irian.

The nature and significance of the 1965 coup, including the mass killings 1965-1966; the rise to power of Suharto and the army, the transmigration program and conflicts between settlers and indigenous populations; pro-democracy movements; and the reasons for the invasion of East Timor in 1974.

The role and impact of significant individuals and groups in the period, for example Sukarno, Mohammad Hatta, Dipa Nusantara Aidit, Suharto and Parmudya Ananta Toer, the LEKRA and Muhammadiyah groups.

China, 1937-1976 (Second Japanese Invasion of Manchuria – Cultural Revolution)

An overview of China in 1937 as background for more intensive study of the period.

The purpose and nature of the ‘Yan’an Way’, including the Long March; Mao Zedong’s rise to prominence; life in the base areas including gender relations, rectification movements, and the role of the Chinese Communist Party’s participation in the war against Japan.

Similarities and differences in both structure and philosophy between the KMT and the Chinese Communist Party, and the conflict that led to a change in the regime in 1949 and the creation of a Communist state.

Chinese involvement in the Cold War and relations with the United States in the Korean conflict (1950-53), and the nature and practice of China’s subsequent international relations until the 1960s.

The characteristics and impact of the Great Leap Forward (1958-1961), including the role of communes, methods of production, and the difficulties faced by workers.

The significance of the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) as a continuing attempt to organise Chinese social and economic life and to suppress dissent, and the implications for groups within China, including rural peasants and political dissidents.

The role and impact of significant individuals in the period, for example Mao Zedong, Jiang Qing, Jiang Jieshi, Zhou Enlai and Lin Piao.

Unit 4: The Modern World since 1945

This unit examines some significant and distinctive features of the modern world within the period 1945 – 2010, in order to build students’ understanding of the contemporary world – that is, why we are here at this point in time. These include changes to the nature of the world order: shifting international tensions, alliances and power blocs; the emergence of Asia as a significant international political and economic force and the nature of engagement by and with Australia; the nature of various conflicts and regional and international attempts to create peace and security; and the implications of globalisation with the ever-increasing mobility of people, the growth of the global economy and overall rise in living standards. Students study ONE of these features. As part of their study, they should follow and make relevant connections with contemporary events. The key conceptual understandings covered in this unit are: causation; change and continuity; historical significance and changing representations and interpretations of the past, and contestability.

By the end of this unit, students:

• understand the distinctive features of the modern world that have emerged since World War II and the historical forces that provided their impetus;
• understand the changes that took place over time, and their significance to the experiences of individuals, groups, nations and the international community;
• apply key concepts as part of a historical inquiry, including evidence, continuity and change, cause and effect, significance, empathy, perspectives and contestability;
• use historical skills to investigate some distinctive features of the world since 1945; frame questions for research; interpret sources and evidence with a focus on reliability and usefulness; and use evidence to evaluate interpretations and representations, and communicate historical arguments.

Historical skills

All the following skills will be studied during this unit.

Chronology, terms and concepts

Identify links between events to understand the nature and significance of causation, change and continuity over time.

Use historical terms and concepts in appropriate contexts to demonstrate historical knowledge and understanding.

Historical questions and research

Formulate, test and modify propositions to investigate historical issues.

Frame questions to guide inquiry and develop a coherent research plan for inquiry.

Identify, locate and organise relevant information from a range of primary and secondary sources.

Practise ethical scholarship when conducting research.

Analysis and use of sources

Identify the origin, purpose and context of historical sources.

Analyse, interpret and synthesise evidence from different types of sources to develop and sustain a historical argument.

Evaluate the reliability, usefulness and contestable nature of sources to develop informed judgements that support a historical argument.

Perspectives and interpretations

Analyse and account for the different perspectives of individuals and groups in the past.

Evaluate critically different historical interpretations of the past, how they evolved, and how they are shaped by the historian’s perspective.

Evaluate contested views about the past to understand the provisional nature of historical knowledge and to arrive at reasoned and supported conclusions.

Explanation and communication

Develop texts that integrate appropriate evidence from a range of sources to explain the past and to support and refute arguments.

Communicate historical understanding by selecting and using text forms appropriate to purpose and audience.

Apply appropriate referencing techniques accurately and consistently.

Historical knowledge and understanding

Students study ONE of the following topics, with a focus on the period 1945 – 2010:

• The Changing World Order;
• Engagement with Asia;
• A Globalised World;
• Movements of People;
• The Struggle for Peace in the Middle East;
• The Search for Peace and Security.

Students study ONE of the following topics, with a focus on the period 1945-2010, which are to be taught with the requisite historical skills described at the start of this unit:

The Changing World Order

An overview, as background, of the nature of the world order at the end of World War II, colonialism in the Eastern communist bloc and Western capitalist bloc, and the emerging role of the United Nations.

The nature of the origins and early development of the Cold War to 1948, including the ideological, cultural and political differences between the United States and the Soviet Union; and the significance of the Truman Doctrine and Berlin Blockade.

The evolving nature and character of the Cold War in Europe and the Asia-Pacific from 1948 through to détente, including the arms race and threat of nuclear war, and the new Cold War of the 1980s.

The involvement of Australia in the Cold War, with particular reference to foreign policy, nuclear testing at Maralinga, and the war in Vietnam.

Significant developments that followed the end of the Cold War in 1989, including the breakup of the Soviet Union, the development of European governance and extension of the ‘European Union’, and the emergence of China and India as significant Asian powers.

The changing nature of world order in the period 1989-2010, for example the peaceful reunification of Germany, the US as superpower, the exercise of military power, and economic influence.

The role of significant individuals during the period, for example Josef Stalin, Harry Truman, Mao Zedong, John Kennedy, Nikita Khrushchev, Jawaharlal Nehru, Richard Nixon, Deng Xiaoping, Ronald Reagan, Margaret Thatcher and Mikhail Gorbachev.

Engagement with Asia

Students investigate the following with specific reference to Australia’s relationship with Asia:

An overview, as background information, of the impact of World War II on Australia and Asia, including the significance of the fall of Singapore, the political and social impact of the war with Japan, the increasing regional involvement of the United States, and movements towards decolonisation.

The nature of Australia’s response to key developments in the period, including the success of the Communists in China, the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal, the return of the French to Vietnam, Indonesian claims for independence, Australia’s adherence to the White Australia Policy until 1973, and the implications of Australia’s involvement in the Vietnam War.

The significance of Australia’s immigration policies on regional relationships after World War II, including the reasons for the gradual dismantling of the White Australia Policy in the period 1945-1973.

The formation of formal alliances and forums, for example ANZUS, SEATO and APEC, and cultural ties with Asia.

Students investigate Australia’s relationship with ONE Asian country chosen from China, India, Indonesia, Japan or Vietnam in relation to the following:

The changing characteristics of the chosen nation over the period, including political independence and alliances; system of government; political, social and cultural policies; economic growth; and the development of education and technology.

The nature of the connections between the chosen country and Australia in the areas of migration, trade, culture, membership of alliances, and political affairs.

The significance of the chosen country’s political and economic development since 1945 for its relationship with Australia.

The role of individuals and groups, for example national leaders, businessmen, and sporting and cultural identities, in promoting or questioning closer links between the chosen country and Australia.

A Globalised World

An overview, as background information, of economic and social conditions in 1945-46, including social displacement and austerity in Europe, Australia and other parts of the world following World War II.

The background to, and the key features of, post-war capitalism and communism as competing economic and social systems in the 1950s.

The emergence of regional blocs in the 1950s and 1960s, including the EEC (European Economic Community) and the Soviet bloc and their contribution to the economic and social well-being of member countries.

The nature of economic and social changes in Australia and one other country up to the 1970s and the impact and significance of these changes for individuals and groups within each society and for relations with other countries.

The global significance of the economic recession of the 1970s for western capitalist economies, including the collapse of the Bretton Woods system and the OPEC Middle East Oil Crisis (1973).

The global impact of the failure of the command economies in the 1970s and 1980s and the revival of market economies from the 1980s, including reference to the collapse of the Soviet bloc and the economic liberalisation of China.

The economic and social impact of global popular culture and technology advances on Australian society in the period 1990-2010.

Movements of People

An overview, as background, of the volume and forms of migration before 1945, including legal and illegal migrants, mass migration to former settler colonies and refugee movements.

The nature, extent and global distribution of populations in 1945 and then in 2010.

The circumstances in 1945 contributing to mass movement of people, including the impact of World War II on migration from Europe and its impact on Australian migration policies and on movements within the British Commonwealth.

The international legal and organisational frameworks for the movement of people, including the 1948 Universal Declaration, the 1951 Refugee Convention and the 1967 Protocol, the anti-trafficking protocol of the Palermo Convention (2000), International Labor Organisation (ILO) and United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).

Displacement arising from conflict and persecution (1945 -1975) for example Communist regimes in Europe (Hungarian uprising 1956), conflicts in the Middle East (Israeli military interventions in Lebanon).

Displacement arising from conflict and persecution (1975 – 2010), for example fleeing from Communism in Asia (Vietnam War) and civil wars in Africa (Horn of Africa).

The consequences of the movement of peoples in the period 1945 – 2010, for example urban migration and labour migration, and the experiences of groups that moved and the implications for Australia, Great Britain and the British Commonwealth.

The Struggle for Peace in the Middle East

An overview of the background to the establishment of the British mandate in Palestine and the establishment of the state of Israel, including the immediate consequences for relations between Jews and Arabs.

The significance and consequences of key conflicts between Arabs and Israelis, including the Arab-Israeli War of 1948-49, the Suez War (1956), the Six-Day War (1967), the Yom Kippur War (1973), Israeli military intervention in Lebanon (1978, 1982, 2006), and Israel’s decision to withdraw from Gaza in 2005.

The nature and consequences of Palestinian reactions to Israel, including the Intifada (1987–94) and the 2nd Intifada (2000–2006).

Reasons for, and consequences of, other conflicts in the Middle East, for example the Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990), the Iran/Iraq War (1980-1988), Iranian Revolution (1979) and the Gulf Wars I (1990–1991) and II (2003).

The attempts to settle conflicts between Arabs and Israelis, for example: the 1949 Armistice, Security Council Resolution 242 (1967), Camp David Accords (1978), the 1979 Peace Treaty, the Oslo Accords (1993), the Camp David Summit (2000), and the role of the United Nations.

The impact of significant individuals and groups both in working for and in opposing peace for example David Ben-Gurion, Anwar Sadat, Menachem Begin, Yasser Arafat, Yitzhak Rabin, Ariel Sharon, Golda Meir, the Palestinian Liberation Organisation, Hezbollah, Hamas, and ‘Peace Now’.

The consequences of the involvement of the United States, Britain and the Soviet Union in the Middle East over the period, in both the continuing conflict and the peace process.

The Search for Peace and Security

An overview of the threats to world security in 1945, including austerity, border disputes, refugee movements, and the peace settlement in 1945.

The reasons for the creation of the United Nations and its immediate successes, including the UN Security Council; the Universal Declaration of Human Rights; the Genocide Convention 1948; and the Geneva Convention 1949.

The development of post war peace movements, with particular reference to their objectives, methods and influence, for example disarmament in response to the Cold War, and the use of non-violence.

The role and outcomes of the United Nations as peacekeeper in specific conflicts and disputes, for example Korea 1954-1955, the former Yugoslavia after 1989; Rwanda (1993-96); Cambodia up to the first elections in 1993; and East Timor/Timor-Leste (1999-2008).

The contribution of Australia as a peacekeeper since World War II, including the military, civilian police, mine-clearers, weapons inspectors and diplomats.

The changing nature of global terrorism to 2010, as represented by the objectives, methods and influence of terrorist groups, including state-based terrorism; anticolonial conflicts (such as Ireland and the United Kingdom) and international tensions (such as Al Qaeda and Western countries).

The nature of responses and the success of governments and the UN to conflicts and threats in the post-Cold War period (1991-2010), including national counter-terrorism actions, efforts to ensure disarmament and non-nuclear proliferation; and the resolutions of the UN Security Council.

The impact of significant individuals in the period, for example Eleanor Roosevelt, H V Evatt, Dag Hammarskjold, Ralph Bunche, Lester Pearson, Gareth Evans and Kofi Annan.

Modern History – Unit 3 and Unit 4

Knowledge and understanding

A.

• explains change over time in different places, evaluates the significance of change for societies, and for the relationships between different groups;
• analyses causes contributing to change and continuity in particular contexts and assesses their relative importance;
• analyses how different perspectives and responses of individuals and groups to ideas, movements and developments, and how they were influenced by time and place;
• evaluates the significance of ideas, movements, events and developments over time from the perspective of different groups;
• evaluates representations and interpretations to explain historical issues and to evaluate contestability, validity and usefulness.

B.

• explains change over time in different places, analyses the significance of change for societies, and for the relationships between different groups;
• analyses causes contributing to change and continuity in particular contexts and their relative importance;
• explains the different perspectives and responses of individuals and groups to ideas, movements and developments, and how they were influenced by time and place;
• explains the significance of ideas, movements, events and developments over time from the perspective of different groups;
• analyses representations and interpretations to explain historical issues and to identify contestability, validity and usefulness.

C.

• describes change over time in different places, and the impact of change on societies and different groups;
• describes causes contributing to change and continuity in particular contexts and their relative importance;
• describes different perspectives and responses of individuals and groups to ideas, movements and developments, and how they were influenced by events at the time;
• explains the significance of ideas, movements, events and developments over time;
• describes representations and interpretations to identify contestability, validity and usefulness.

D.

• identifies changes over time and how societies were affected;
• describes causes contributing to change and continuity in particular contexts;
• identifies different responses of individuals and groups to ideas, movements and developments;
• describes significant ideas, movements, events and developments in the past;
• describes interpretations and representations.

E.

• identifies changes that affected society;
• identifies examples of change and continuity in particular contexts;
• recounts the different responses of individuals and groups to ideas, movements and developments;
• identifies significant ideas, movements, events and developments in the past;
• identifies interpretations and representations.

Inquiry and Skills

A.

• develops focus questions to frame an inquiry and conducts comprehensive research using a wide range of sources and methods;
• selects and applies relevant evidence based on substantiated evaluation of the reliability and usefulness of sources;
• evaluates different historical interpretations and representations with analysis of the strength of the evidence;
• develops convincing historical arguments and synthesises evidence from different sources, to support particular claims with valid and sustained reasoning, and with an assessment of alternative interpretations;
• communicates complex ideas with coherent and sustained arguments with analysis of evidence, using appropriate language and accurate referencing.

B.

• develops focus questions to frame an inquiry and conducts research using a range of sources and methods;
• selects and applies relevant evidence based on evaluation of the reliability and usefulness of sources;
• evaluates different historical interpretations and representations by selecting and using relevant evidence from a range of sources;
• develops convincing historical arguments and synthesises evidence from different sources, with valid reasoning, and with an explanation of alternative interpretations;
• communicates complex ideas and coherent arguments using appropriate evidence, language and accurate referencing.

C.

• develops focus questions for an inquiry and conducts research using sources and methods;
• selects and applies relevant evidence based on evaluation of sources;
• analyses different historical interpretations and representations by selecting and using relevant evidence;
• develops reasoned historical arguments using and synthesising evidence from different sources, and with reference to some interpretations;
• communicates ideas and arguments using appropriate evidence, language and accurate referencing.

D.

• uses inquiry questions to conduct research derived from sources;
• uses evidence derived from sources;
• describes historical interpretations and representations using evidence;
• develops historical accounts using evidence from a limited number of sources;
• communicates ideas and arguments with referencing.

E.

• uses inquiry questions to conduct research;
• uses sources to research;
• identifies viewpoints about the past;
• recounts historical events and identifies a limited number of sources;
• communicates ideas and information with minimal referencing.