The proficiency strands understanding, fluency, problem-solving and reasoning are an integral part of mathematics content across the three content strands: number and algebra, measurement and geometry, and statistics and probability. The proficiencies reinforce the significance of working mathematically within the content and describe how the content is explored or developed. They provide the language to build in the developmental aspects of the learning of mathematics. The achievement standards reflect the content and encompass the proficiencies.

At this year level:

• understanding includes describing patterns involving indices and recurring decimals, identifying commonalities between operations with algebra and arithmetic, connecting rules for linear relations with their graphs, explaining the purpose of statistical measures and explaining measurements of perimeter and area;
• fluency includes calculating accurately with simple decimals, indices and integers; recognising equivalence of common decimals and fractions including recurring decimals; factorising and simplifying basic algebraic expressions and evaluating perimeters and areas of common shapes and volumes of three-dimensional objects;
• problem-solving includes formulating and modelling practical situations involving ratios, profit and loss, areas and perimeters of common shapes and using two-way tables and Venn diagrams to calculate probabilities;
• reasoning includes justifying the result of a calculation or estimation as reasonable, deriving probability from its complement, using congruence to deduce properties of triangles, finding estimates of means and proportions of populations.

Number and place value

Use index notation with numbers to establish the index laws with positive integral indices and the zero index.

Carry out the four operations with rational numbers and integers, using efficient mental and written strategies and appropriate digital technologies.

Real numbers

Investigate terminating and recurring decimals.

Investigate the concept of irrational numbers, including π.

Solve problems involving the use of percentages, including percentage increases and decreases, with and without digital technologies.

Solve a range of problems involving rates and ratios, with and without digital technologies.

Money and financial mathematics

Solve problems involving profit and loss, with and without digital technologies.

Patterns and algebra

Extend and apply the distributive law to the expansion of algebraic expressions.

Factorise algebraic expressions by identifying numerical factors.

Simplify algebraic expressions involving the four operations.

Linear and non-linear relationships

Plot linear relationships on the Cartesian plane with and without the use of digital technologies.

Solve linear equations using algebraic and graphical techniques. Verify solutions by substitution.

Using units of measurement

Choose appropriate units of measurement for area and volume and convert from one unit to another.

Find perimeters and areas of parallelograms, trapeziums, rhombuses and kites.

Investigate the relationship between features of circles such as circumference, area, radius and diameter. Use formulas to solve problems involving circumference and area.

Develop formulas for volumes of rectangular and triangular prisms and prisms in general. Use formulas to solve problems involving volume.

Solve problems involving duration, including using 12- and 24-hour time within a single time zone.

Geometric reasoning

Define congruence of plane shapes using transformations.

Develop the conditions for congruence of triangles.

Establish properties of quadrilaterals using congruent triangles and angle properties, and solve related numerical problems using reasoning.

Chance

Identify complementary events and use the sum of probabilities to solve problems.

Describe events using language of ‘at least’, exclusive ‘or’ (A or B but not both), inclusive ‘or’ (A or B or both) and ‘and’.

Represent events in two-way tables and Venn diagrams and solve related problems.

Data representation and interpretation

Investigate techniques for collecting data, including census, sampling and observation.

Explore the practicalities and implications of obtaining data through sampling using a variety of investigative processes.

Explore the variation of means and proportions of random samples drawn from the same population.

Investigate the effect of individual data values, including outliers, on the mean and median.

By the end of Year 8, students solve everyday problems involving rates, ratios and percentages. They describe index laws and apply them to whole numbers. They describe rational and irrational numbers. Students solve problems involving profit and loss. They make connections between expanding and factorising algebraic expressions. Students solve problems relating to the volume of prisms. They make sense of time duration in real applications. They identify conditions for the congruence of triangles and deduce the properties of quadrilaterals. Students model authentic situations with two-way tables and Venn diagrams. They choose appropriate language to describe events and experiments. They explain issues related to the collection of data and the effect of outliers on means and medians in that data.

Students use efficient mental and written strategies to carry out the four operations with integers. They simplify a variety of algebraic expressions. They solve linear equations and graph linear relationships on the Cartesian plane. Students convert between units of measurement for area and volume. They perform calculations to determine perimeter and area of parallelograms, rhombuses and kites. They name the features of circles and calculate the areas and circumferences of circles. Students determine the probabilities of complementary events and calculate the sum of probabilities.

The science inquiry skills and science as a human endeavour strands are described across a two-year band. In their planning, schools and teachers refer to the expectations outlined in the achievement standard and also to the content of the science understanding strand for the relevant year level to ensure that these two strands are addressed over the two-year period. The three strands of the curriculum are interrelated and their content is taught in an integrated way. The order and detail in which the content descriptions are organised into teaching and learning programs are decisions to be made by the teacher.

Incorporating the key ideas of science

Over Years 7 to 10, students develop their understanding of microscopic and atomic structures; how systems at a range of scales are shaped by flows of energy and matter and interactions due to forces, and develop the ability to quantify changes and relative amounts.

In Year 8, students are introduced to cells as microscopic structures that explain macroscopic properties of living systems. They link form and function at a cellular level and explore the organisation of body systems in terms of flows of matter between interdependent organs. Similarly, they explore changes in matter at a particle level, and distinguish between chemical and physical change. They begin to classify different forms of energy, and describe the role of energy in causing change in systems, including the role of heat and kinetic energy in the rock cycle. Students use experimentation to isolate relationships between components in systems and explain these relationships through increasingly complex representations. They make predictions and propose explanations, drawing on evidence to support their views while considering other points of view.

Biological sciences

Cells are the basic units of living things; they have specialised structures and functions.

Multi-cellular organisms contain systems of organs carrying out specialised functions that enable them to survive and reproduce.

Chemical sciences

Properties of the different states of matter can be explained in terms of the motion and arrangement of particles.

Differences between elements, compounds and mixtures can be described at a particle level.

Chemical change involves substances reacting to form new substances.

Earth and space sciences

Sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks contain minerals and are formed by processes that occur within Earth over a variety of timescales.

Physical sciences

Energy appears in different forms, including movement (kinetic energy), heat and potential energy, and energy transformations and transfers cause change within systems.

Nature and development of science

Scientific knowledge has changed peoples’ understanding of the world and is refined as new evidence becomes available.

Science knowledge can develop through collaboration across the disciplines of science and the contributions of people from a range of cultures.

Use and influence of science

Solutions to contemporary issues that are found using science and technology, may impact on other areas of society and may involve ethical considerations.

People use science understanding and skills in their occupations and these have influenced the development of practices in areas of human activity.

Questioning and predicting

Identify questions and problems that can be investigated scientifically and make predictions based on scientific knowledge.

Planning and conducting

Collaboratively and individually plan and conduct a range of investigation types, including fieldwork and experiments, ensuring safety and ethical guidelines are followed.

Measure and control variables, select equipment appropriate to the task and collect data with accuracy.

Processing and analysing data and information

Construct and use a range of representations, including graphs, keys and models to represent and analyse patterns or relationships in data using digital technologies as appropriate.

Summarise data, from students’ own investigations and secondary sources, and use scientific understanding to identify relationships and draw conclusions based on evidence.

Evaluating

Reflect on scientific investigations including evaluating the quality of the data collected, and identifying improvements.

Use scientific knowledge and findings from investigations to evaluate claims based on evidence.

Communicating

Communicate ideas, findings and evidence based solutions to problems using scientific language, and representations, using digital technologies as appropriate.

By the end of Year 8, students compare physical and chemical changes and use the particle model to explain and predict the properties and behaviours of substances. They identify different forms of energy and describe how energy transfers and transformations cause change in simple systems. They compare processes of rock formation, including the timescales involved. They analyse the relationship between structure and function at cell, organ and body system levels. Students examine the different science knowledge used in occupations. They explain how evidence has led to an improved understanding of a scientific idea and describe situations in which scientists collaborated to generate solutions to contemporary problems. They reflect on implications of these solutions for different groups in society.

Students identify and construct questions and problems that they can investigate scientifically. They consider safety and ethics when planning investigations, including designing field or experimental methods. They identify variables to be changed, measured and controlled. Students construct representations of their data to reveal and analyse patterns and trends, and use these when justifying their conclusions. They explain how modifications to methods could improve the quality of their data and apply their own scientific knowledge and investigation findings to evaluate claims made by others. They use appropriate language and representations to communicate science ideas, methods and findings in a range of text types.

The ancient to the modern world

The Year 8 curriculum provides a study of history from the end of the ancient period to the beginning of the modern period, c.650– 1750 AD (CE). This was when major civilisations around the world came into contact with each other. Social, economic, religious and political beliefs were often challenged and significantly changed. It was the period when the modern world began to take shape.

The content provides opportunities to develop historical understanding through key concepts, including evidence, continuity and change, cause and effect, perspectives, empathy, significance and contestability. These concepts may be investigated within a particular historical context to facilitate an understanding of the past and to provide a focus for historical inquiries.

The history content at this year level involves two strands: historical knowledge and understanding, and historical skills. These strands are interrelated and have been developed to be taught in an integrated way, and in ways that are appropriate to specific local contexts. The order and detail in which they are taught are programming decisions.

Key inquiry questions

A framework for developing students’ historical knowledge, understanding and skills is provided by inquiry questions through the use and interpretation of sources. The key inquiry questions for Year 8 are:

• How did societies change from the end of the ancient period to the beginning of the modern age?
• What key beliefs and values emerged and how did they influence societies?
• What were the causes and effects of contact between societies in this period?
• Which significant people, groups and ideas from this period have influenced the world today?

Knowledge and Understanding

Overview of the ancient to modern world

The following content is taught as part of an overview for the historical period. It is not intended to be taught in depth. Overview content identifies important features of the period, c.650 AD (CE) – 1750, as part of an expansive chronology that helps students understand broad patterns of historical change. As such, the overview provides the broader context for the teaching of depth study content and can be built into various parts of a teaching and learning program. This means that overview content can be used to give students an introduction to the historical period; to make the links to and between the depth studies; and to consolidate understanding through a review of the period.

Overview content for the ancient to modern world (Byzantine, Celtic, Anglo-Saxon, Viking, Ottoman, Khmer, Mongols, Yuan and Ming dynasties, Aztec, Inca) includes the following:

• the transformation of the Roman world and the spread of Christianity and Islam;
• key features of the medieval world (feudalism, trade routes, voyages of discovery, contact and conflict);
• the emergence of ideas about the world and the place of people in it by the end of the period (such as the Renaissance, the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment).

Depth studies

There are three depth studies for this historical period. For each depth study, there are up to four electives that focus on a particular society, event, movement or development. It is expected that ONE elective will be studied in detail. The content in each depth study elective is designed to allow detailed study of specific aspects of this historical period. As part of a teaching and learning program, depth study content can be integrated with the overview content and/or with other depth study electives.

1 The Western and Islamic world

Students investigate ONE of these societies/empires from the Western or Islamic world in depth: the Vikings or Medieval Europe or the Ottoman Empire or Renaissance Italy.

The Ottoman Empire (c.1299 – c.1683)

The way of life in the Ottoman Empire (social, cultural, economic and political features) and the roles and relationships of different groups in society.

Significant developments and/or cultural achievements that reflect the power and influence of the Ottoman Empire, such as the fall of Constantinople in 1453 AD (CE), art and architecture.

Relationships with subject peoples, including the policy of religious tolerance.

The role of significant individuals such as Selim I or Suleiman the Magnificent in maintaining the strength and influence of the Ottoman Empire.

Renaissance Italy (c.1400 – c.1600)

The way of life in Renaissance Italy (social, cultural, economic and political features) and the roles and relationships of different groups in society.

Significant developments and/or cultural achievements that reflect the concentration of wealth and power in the city-states, such as art and learning.

Relationships between rulers and ruled in ONE Italian city-state such as Florence or Naples.

The role and achievements of significant individuals such as Lucrezia Borgia, Galileo, Leonardo da Vinci, Niccolo Machiavelli.

The spread of Renaissance culture to the rest of Europe, and its legacy.

The Vikings (c.790 – c.1066)

The way of life in Viking society (social, cultural, economic and political features) and the roles and relationships of different groups in society.

Significant developments and/or cultural achievements that led to Viking expansion, including weapons and shipbuilding, and the extent of their trade.

Viking conquests and relationships with subject peoples, including the perspectives of monks, changes in the way of life of the English, and the Norman invasion.

The role of a significant individual in the expansion of Viking settlement and influence, such as Erik the Red or Leif Ericson.

Medieval Europe (c.590 – c.1500)

The way of life in Medieval Europe (social, cultural, economic and political features) and the roles and relationships of different groups in society.

Significant developments and/or cultural achievements, such as changing relations between Islam and the West (including the Crusades), architecture, medieval manuscripts and music.

Continuity and change in society in ONE of the following areas: crime and punishment; military and defence systems; towns, cities and commerce.

Dominance of the Catholic Church and the role of significant individuals such as Charlemagne.

2 The Asia-Pacific world

Students investigate ONE of these Asia-Pacific societies in depth: the Angkor/Khmer Empire or Shogunate Japan or the Polynesian expansion across the Pacific. N.B. Where appropriate, this depth study may include some reference beyond the end of the period c.1750.

Angkor/Khmer Empire (c.802 – c.1431)

The way of life in the Khmer Empire, including, social, cultural, economic and political features (including the role of the king).

Reasons for Angkor’s rise to prominence, including wealth from trade and agriculture.

Cultural achievements of the Khmer civilisation, including its system of water management and the building of the temples of Angkor .

Theories of the decline of Angkor, such as the overuse of water resources, neglect of public works as a result of ongoing war, and the effects of climate change.

Japan under the Shoguns’ (c.794 – 1867)

The way of life in shogunate Japan, including social, cultural, economic and political features (including the feudal system and the increasing power of the shogun).

The role of the Tokugawa Shogunate in reimposing a feudal system (based on daimyo and samurai) and the increasing control of the Shogun over foreign trade.

The use of environmental resources in Shogunate Japan and the forestry and land use policies of the Tokugawa Shogunate.

Theories about the decline of the Shogunate, including modernisation and westernisation, through the adoption of Western arms and technology.

The Polynesian expansion across the Pacific (c.700 – 1756)

Theories about the origin and spread of Polynesian settlers throughout the Pacific.

The way of life in ONE Polynesian society, including social, cultural, economic and political features, such as the role of the ariki in Maori and in Rapa Nui society (Easter Island).

Cultural achievements of ONE Polynesian society, such as the Ta moko and hangi in Maori society OR the moai constructed on Easter Island.

The way Polynesian societies used environmental resources (sustainably and unsustainably), including the extinction of the moa in New Zealand, the use of religious/supernatural threats to conserve resources, and the exploitation of Easter Island’s palm trees.

3 Expanding contacts

Students investigate ONE of the following historical developments in depth to explore the interaction of societies in this period: the Mongol expansion or the Black Death in Africa, Asia and Europe or the Spanish conquest of the Aztecs and Incas.

Mongol expansion (c.1206 – c.1368)

The nomadic lifestyle of the Mongols and the rise of Temujin (Genghis Khan).

The organisation of the Mongol army under Genghis Khan and the treatment of conquered peoples, such as the codification of laws and exemption of teachers, lawyers and artists from taxes.

The extent of the Mongol expansion as one of the largest land empires in history.

The consequences of the Mongol expansion, including its impact on life in China during and after the Mongol conquest and contributions to European knowledge and trade routes.

The Black Death in Asia, Europe and Africa (14th century plague)

Living conditions and religious beliefs in the 14th century, including life expectancy, medical knowledge and beliefs about the power of God.

The role of expanding trade between Europe and Asia in the Black Death, including the origin and spread of the disease.

Causes and symptoms of the Black Death and the responses of different groups in society to the spread of the disease, such as the flagellants and monasteries.

The immediate- and long-term effects of the Black Death on Asian, European and African populations, and conflicting theories about the impact of the plague.

The Spanish conquest of the Americas (c.1492 – c.1572)

Pre-Columbian life in the Americas, including social organisation, city life and beliefs.

When, how and why the Spanish arrived in the Americas, and where they went, including the various societies and geographical features they encountered.

The nature of the interaction between the Spanish and the indigenous populations, with a particular focus on either the Aztecs OR Incas.

The immediate and long-term effects of the conquest on the Aztecs OR Incas as well as on the wider world.

Skills

Chronology, terms and concepts

Sequence historical events, developments and periods.

Use historical terms and concepts.

Historical questions and research.

Identify a range of questions about the past to inform a historical inquiry.

Identify and locate relevant sources, using ICT and other methods.

Analysis and use of sources

Identify the origin and purpose of primary and secondary sources.

Locate, compare, select and use information from a range of sources as evidence.

Draw conclusions about the usefulness of sources.

Perspectives and interpretations

Identify and describe points of view, attitudes and values in primary and secondary sources.

Explanation and communication

Develop texts, particularly descriptions and explanations that use evidence from a range of sources that are acknowledged.

Use a range of communication forms (oral, graphic, written) and digital technologies.

Achievement Standard

By the end of Year 8, students recognise and explain patterns of change and continuity over time. They explain the causes and effects of events and developments. They identify the motives and actions of people at the time. Students explain the significance of individuals and groups and how they were influenced by the beliefs and values of their society. They describe different interpretations of the past.

Students sequence events and developments within a chronological framework with reference to periods of time. When researching, students develop questions to frame a historical inquiry. They analyse, select and organise information from primary and secondary sources and use it as evidence to answer inquiry questions. Students identify and explain different points of view in sources. When interpreting sources, they identify their origin and purpose, and distinguish between fact and opinion. Students develop texts, particularly descriptions and explanations, incorporating analysis. In developing these texts, and organising and presenting their findings, they use historical terms and concepts, evidence identified in sources, and acknowledge their sources of information.

Introduction

There are two units of study in the Year 8 curriculum for Geography: ‘Landforms and landscapes’ and ‘Changing nations’.

‘Landforms and landscapes’ focuses on investigating geomorphology through a study of landscapes and their landforms. This unit examines the processes that shape individual landforms, the values and meanings placed on landforms and landscapes by diverse cultures, hazards associated with landscapes, and management of landscapes. ‘Landforms and landscapes’ develops students’ understanding of the concept of environment and enables them to explore the significance of landscapes to people, including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples. These distinctive aspects of landforms and landscapes are investigated using studies drawn from Australia and throughout the world.

‘Changing nations’ investigates the changing human geography of countries, as revealed by shifts in population distribution. The spatial distribution of population is a sensitive indicator of economic and social change, and has significant environmental, economic and social effects, both negative and positive. The unit explores the process of urbanisation and draws on a study of a country of the Asia region to show how urbanisation changes the economies and societies of low- and middle-income countries. It investigates the reasons for the high level of urban concentration in Australia, one of the distinctive features of Australia’s human geography, and compares Australia with the United States of America. The redistribution of population resulting from internal migration is examined through case studies of Australia and China, and is contrasted with the way international migration reinforces urban concentration in Australia. The unit then examines issues related to the management and future of Australia’s urban areas.

The content of this year level is organised into two strands: geographical knowledge and understanding, and geographical inquiry and skills. These strands are interrelated and have been developed to be taught in an integrated manner, and in ways that are appropriate to specific local contexts. The order and detail in which they are taught are programming decisions.

Key inquiry questions

A framework for developing students’ geographical knowledge, understanding and skills is provided through the inclusion of inquiry questions and specific inquiry skills, including the use and interpretation of maps, photographs and other representations of geographical data.

The key inquiry questions for Year 8 are:

• How do environmental and human processes affect the characteristics of places and environments?
• How do the interconnections between places, people and environments affect the lives of people?
• What are the consequences of changes to places and environments and how can these changes be managed?

Knowledge and Understanding

Unit 1: Landforms and landscapes

Different types of landscapes and their distinctive landform features.

Spiritual, aesthetic and cultural value of landscapes and landforms for people, including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

Geomorphic processes that produce landforms, including a case study of at least one landform.

Human causes and effects of landscape degradation.

Ways of protecting significant landscapes.

Causes, impacts and responses to a geomorphological hazard.

Unit 2: Changing nations

Causes and consequences of urbanisation, drawing on a study from Indonesia, or another country of the Asia region.

Differences in urban concentration and urban settlement patterns between Australia and the United States of America, and their causes and consequences.

Reasons for, and effects of, internal migration in both Australia and China.

Reasons for, and effects of, international migration in Australia.

Management and planning of Australia’s urban future.

Skills

Observing, questioning and planning

Develop geographically significant questions and plan an inquiry using appropriate geographical methodologies and concepts.

Collecting, recording, evaluating and representing

Evaluate sources for their reliability and usefulness and select, collect and record relevant geographical data and information, using ethical protocols, from appropriate primary and secondary sources.

Represent data in a range of appropriate forms, for example, climate graphs, compound column graphs, population pyramids, tables, field sketches and annotated diagrams, with and without the use of digital and spatial technologies.

Represent spatial distribution of different types of geographical phenomena by constructing appropriate maps at different scales that conform to cartographic conventions, using spatial technologies as appropriate.

Interpreting, analysing and concluding

Interpret geographical data and other information using qualitative and quantitative methods, and digital and spatial technologies as appropriate, to identify and propose explanations for spatial distributions, patterns and trends, and infer relationships.

Apply geographical concepts to draw conclusions based on the analysis of data and information collected.

Communicating

Present findings, arguments and ideas in a range of communication forms selected to suit a particular audience and purpose; using geographical terminology and digital technologies as appropriate.

Reflecting and responding

Reflect on their learning to propose individual and collective action in response to a contemporary geographical challenge, taking account of environmental, economic and social considerations, and predict the expected outcomes of their proposal.

Achievement Standard

By the end of Year 8, students explain geographical processes that influence the characteristics of places and explain how places are perceived and valued differently. They explain interconnections within environments and between people and places and explain how they change places and environments. They compare alternative strategies to a geographical challenge, taking into account environmental, economic and social factors.

Students identify geographically significant questions from observations to frame an inquiry. They evaluate a range of primary and secondary sources to locate useful and reliable information and data. They select, record and represent data and the location and distribution of geographical phenomena in a range of appropriate digital and non-digital forms, including maps at different scales that conform to cartographic conventions. They analyse geographical maps, data and other information to propose explanations for spatial distributions, patterns, trends and relationships, and draw reasoned conclusions. Students present findings, arguments and ideas using relevant geographical terminology and digital technologies in a range of appropriate communication forms. They propose action in response to a geographical challenge, taking account of environmental, economic and social factors, and predict the outcomes of their proposal.

Introduction

The Year 8 curriculum provides a study of the responsibilities and freedoms of citizens and how Australians can actively participate in their democracy. Students consider how laws are made and the types of laws used in Australia. Students also examine what it means to be Australian by identifying the reasons for and influences that shape national identity.

The civics and citizenship content at this year level involves two strands: civics and citizenship knowledge and understanding, and civics and citizenship skills. These strands are interrelated and have been developed to be taught in an integrated way, and in ways that are appropriate to specific local contexts. The order and detail in which they are taught are programming decisions.

Key inquiry questions

A framework for developing students’ civics and citizenship knowledge, understanding and skills at this year level is provided by the following key questions:

• What are the freedoms and responsibilities of citizens in Australia’s democracy?
• How are laws made and applied in Australia?
• What different perspectives are there about national identity?

Knowledge and Understanding

Government and democracy

The freedoms that enable active participation in Australia’s democracy within the bounds of law, including freedom of speech, association, assembly, religion and movement.

How citizens can participate in Australia’s democracy, including use of the electoral system, contact with their elected representatives, use of lobby groups, and direct action.

Laws and citizens

How laws are made in Australia through parliaments (statutory law) and through the courts (common law).

The types of law in Australia, including criminal law and civil law, and the place of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander customary law.

Citizenship, diversity and identity

The values and beliefs of religions practised in contemporary Australia, including Christianity.

Different perspectives about Australia’s national identity, including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander perspectives, and what it means to be Australian.

How national identity can shape a sense of belonging in Australia’s multicultural society.

Skills

Questioning and research

Develop a range of questions to investigate Australia’s political and legal systems.

Identify, gather and sort information and ideas from a range of sources.

Analysis, synthesis and interpretation

Critically analyse information and ideas from a range of sources in relation to civics and citizenship topics and issues.

Problem-solving and decision-making

Appreciate multiple perspectives and use strategies to mediate differences.

Use democratic processes to reach consensus on a course of action relating to a civics or citizenship issue and plan for that action.

Communication and reflection

Present evidence-based civics and citizenship arguments using subject-specific language.

Reflect on their role as a citizen in Australia’s democracy.

Achievement Standard

By the end of Year 8, students analyse features of Australian democracy, and explain features of Australia’s democracy that enable active participation. They recognise different types of law in Australia and explain how laws are made. They identify the diverse belief systems in Australia and analyse issues about national identity and the factors that contribute to people’s sense of belonging.

When researching, students develop a range of questions to investigate Australia’s political and legal systems and critically analyse information gathered from different sources for relevance. They explain different points of view on civics and citizenship issues. When planning for action, students take into account multiple perspectives, use democratic processes, and develop solutions to an issue. Students develop and present reasoned arguments on civics and citizenship issues using appropriate texts, subject-specific language and concepts. They identify ways they can be active and informed citizens in different contexts.

Introduction

The Year 8 curriculum gives students the opportunity to further develop their understanding of economics and business concepts by exploring the ways markets – including traditional Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander markets – work within Australia, the participants in the market system and the ways they may influence the market’s operation. The rights, responsibilities and opportunities that arise for businesses, consumers and governments are considered along with the influences on the ways individuals work now and into the future. The emphasis in Year 8 is on national and regional issues, with opportunities for the concepts to also be considered in relation to local community or global issues where appropriate.

The economics and business content at this year level involves two strands: economics and business knowledge and understanding, and economics and business skills. These strands are interrelated and have been developed to be taught in an integrated way, and in ways that are appropriate to specific local contexts. The order and detail in which they are taught are programming decisions.

Students are expected to be taught the content through contemporary issues, events and/or case studies. Teachers will design programs that cover appropriate contexts and meet the needs of their students.

Key inquiry questions

A framework for developing students’ economics and business knowledge, understanding and skills at this year level is provided by the following key questions:

• Why are markets needed, and why are governments involved?
• Why do consumers and businesses have both rights and responsibilities?
• What may affect the ways people work now and in the future?
• How do different businesses respond to opportunities in the market?

Knowledge and Understanding

The ways markets in Australia operate to enable the distribution of resources, and why they may be influenced by government.

The traditional markets of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities and their participation in contemporary markets.

The rights and responsibilities of consumers and businesses in Australia in terms of financial and economic decision-making.

Types of businesses and the ways that businesses respond to opportunities in Australia.

Influences on the ways people work and factors that might affect work in the future.

Skills

Questioning and research

Develop questions about an economic or business issue or event, and plan and conduct an investigation or project.

Gather relevant data and information from a range of digital, online and print sources.

Interpretation and analysis

Interpret data and information displayed in different formats to identify relationships and trends.

Economic reasoning, decision-making and application

Generate a range of alternatives in response to an observed economic or business issue or event, and evaluate the potential costs and benefits of each alternative.

Apply economics and business knowledge, skills and concepts in familiar and new situations.

Communication and reflection

Present evidence-based conclusions using economics and business language and concepts in a range of appropriate formats, and reflect on the consequences of alternative actions.

Achievement Standard

By the end of Year 8, students explain how markets operate and recognise why governments may influence the market’s operation. They explain the rights and responsibilities of consumers and businesses in terms of financial and economic decision-making. They explain why different types of businesses exist and describe the different ways businesses can respond to opportunities in the market. Students describe influences on the way people work and factors that may affect work in the future.

When researching, students develop questions and gather relevant data and information from different sources to investigate an economic or business issue. They interpret data to identify trends and relationships. They propose a range of alternative responses to an issue and evaluate the costs and benefits of each alternative. They apply economics and business knowledge, skills and concepts to familiar and unfamiliar problems. Students develop and present evidence-based conclusions using appropriate texts, subject-specific language and concepts. They identify the effects of an economic or business decision and the potential consequences of alternative actions.

In the Australian Curriculum, The Arts is a learning area that draws together related but distinct art forms. While these art forms have close relationships and are often used in interrelated ways, each involves different approaches to arts practices and critical and creative thinking that reflect distinct bodies of knowledge, understanding and skills. The curriculum examines past, current and emerging arts practices in each art form across a range of cultures and places.

The Australian Curriculum: The Arts comprises five subjects:
• Dance • Drama • Media Arts • Music • Visual Arts.

The arts have the capacity to engage, inspire and enrich all students, exciting the imagination and encouraging them to reach their creative and expressive potential. The five arts subjects in the Australian Curriculum provide opportunities for students to learn how to create, design, represent, communicate and share their imagined and conceptual ideas, emotions, observations and experiences.

Rich in tradition, the arts play a major role in the development and expression of cultures and communities, locally, nationally and globally. Students communicate ideas in current, traditional and emerging forms and use arts knowledge and understanding to make sense of their world. The Australian Curriculum: The Arts values, respects and explores the significant contributions of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples to Australia’s arts heritage and contemporary arts practices through their distinctive ways of representing and communicating knowledge, traditions and experience. In The Arts, students learn as artists and audience through the intellectual, emotional and sensory experiences of the arts. They acquire knowledge, skills and understanding specific to The Arts subjects and develop critical understanding that informs decision-making and aesthetic choices. Through The Arts, students learn to express their ideas, thoughts and opinions as they discover and interpret the world. They learn that designing, producing and resolving their work is as essential to learning in the arts as is creating a finished artwork. Students develop their arts knowledge and aesthetic understanding through a growing comprehension of the distinct and related languages, symbols, techniques, processes and skills of the arts subjects. Arts learning provides students with opportunities to engage with creative industries and arts professionals.

The arts entertain, challenge, provoke responses and enrich our knowledge of self, communities, world cultures and histories. The Arts contribute to the development of confident and creative individuals, nurturing and challenging active and informed citizens. Learning in The Arts is based on cognitive, affective and sensory/kinaesthetic response to arts practices as students revisit increasingly complex content, skills and processes with developing confidence and sophistication across their years of learning.

This rationale is extended and complemented by the specific rationale for each arts subject.

The Australian Curriculum: The Arts aims to develop students’:

• creativity, critical thinking, aesthetic knowledge and understanding about arts practices, through making and responding to artworks with increasing self-confidence;
• arts knowledge and skills to communicate ideas; they value and share their arts and life experiences by representing, expressing and communicating ideas, imagination and observations about their individual and collective worlds to others in meaningful ways;
• use of innovative arts practices with available and emerging technologies, to express and represent ideas, while displaying empathy for multiple viewpoints;
• understanding of Australia’s histories and traditions through the arts, engaging with the artworks and practices, both traditional and contemporary, of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples;
• understanding of local, regional and global cultures, and their arts histories and traditions, through engaging with the worlds of artists, artworks, audiences and arts professions.

These aims are extended and complemented by specific aims for each arts subject.

Years 7 and 8

In Dance, students:

• make and respond to dance independently and with their classmates, teachers and communities;
• explore dance as an art form through choreography, performance and appreciation;
• build on their awareness of the body through body part articulation;
• extend their understanding and use of space, time, dynamics and relationships including performing in groups, spatial relationships and using interaction to communicate their choreographic intention;
• extend the combinations of fundamental movement skills to explore dance styles;
• extend technical skills from the previous band, increasing their confidence, accuracy, clarity of movement and projection;
• draw on dances from a range of cultures, times and locations as they experience dance;
• explore the dance and influences of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and of the Asia region;
• learn about style and choreographic intent in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander dances, and how these dances communicate social contexts and relationships;
• learn about sustainability through the arts and sustainability of practices in the arts;
• explore meaning and interpretation, forms and elements, and social, cultural and historical contexts of dance as they make and respond to dance;
• evaluate choreographers’ intentions and expressive skills in dances they view and perform;
• understand that safe dance practices underlie all experiences in the study of dance;
• perform within their own body capabilities and work safely in groups.

Skills

Combine elements of dance and improvise by making literal movements into abstract movements.

Develop their choreographic intent by applying the elements of dance to select and organise movement.

Practise and refine technical skills in style-specific techniques.

Structure dances using choreographic devices and form.

Rehearse and perform focusing on expressive skills appropriate to style and/or choreographic intent.

Analyse how choreographers use elements of dance and production elements to communicate intent.

Identify and connect specific features and purposes of dance from contemporary and past times to explore viewpoints and enrich their dance-making, starting with dance in Australia and including dance of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

Achievement Standard

By the end of Year 8, students identify and analyse the elements of dance, choreographic devices and production elements in dances in different styles and apply this knowledge in dances they make and perform. They evaluate how they and others from different cultures, times and places communicate meaning and intent through dance.

Students choreograph dances, demonstrating selection and organisation of the elements of dance, choreographic devices and form to communicate choreographic intent. They choreograph and learn dances, and perform them with confidence and clarity, and with technical and expressive skills appropriate to the dance style.

Years 7 and 8

In Drama, students:

• build on their understanding of role, character and relationships;
• use voice and movement to sustain character and situation;
• use focus, tension, space and time to enhance drama;
• incorporate language and ideas and use devices such as dramatic symbol to create dramatic action and extend mood and atmosphere in performance;
• shape drama for audiences using narrative and non-narrative dramatic forms and production elements;
• draw on drama from a range of cultures, times and locations as they experience drama;
• explore the drama and influences of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and those of the Asia region;
• learn that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people have converted oral records to other technologies;
• learn that over time there has been further development of different traditional and contemporary styles of drama, including contemporary styles developed by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander dramatists, as they explore drama forms;
• explore meaning and interpretation, forms and elements including voice, movement, situation, space and time, and tension as they make and respond to drama;
• consider social, cultural and historical influences of drama;
• evaluate the directors’ intentions and expressive skills used by actors in drama they view and perform;
• maintain safety in dramatic play and in interaction with other actors;
• build on their understanding from previous bands of the roles of artists and audiences as they engage with more diverse performances.

Skills

Combine the elements of drama in devised and scripted drama to explore and develop issues, ideas and themes.

Develop roles and characters consistent with situation, dramatic forms and performance styles to convey status, relationships and intentions.

Plan, structure and rehearse drama, exploring ways to communicate and refine dramatic meaning for theatrical effect.

Develop and refine expressive skills in voice and movement to communicate ideas and dramatic action in different performance styles and conventions, including contemporary Australian drama styles developed by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander dramatists.

Perform devised and scripted drama maintaining commitment to role.

Analyse how the elements of drama have been combined in devised and scripted drama to convey different forms, performance styles and dramatic meaning.

Identify and connect specific features and purposes of drama from contemporary and past times to explore viewpoints and enrich their drama making, starting with drama in Australia and including drama of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

Achievement Standard

By the end of Year 8, students identify and analyse how the elements of drama are used, combined and manipulated in different styles. They apply this knowledge in drama they make and perform. They evaluate how they and others from different cultures, times and places communicate meaning and intent through drama.

Students collaborate to devise, interpret and perform drama. They manipulate the elements of drama, narrative and structure to control and communicate meaning. They apply different performance styles and conventions to convey status, relationships and intentions. They use performance skills and design elements to shape and focus theatrical effect for an audience.

Years 7 and 8

In Media Arts, students:

• build on their understanding of structure, intent, character, settings, points of view and genre conventions and explore media conventions in their media artworks;
• build on their understanding and use of time, space, sound, movement, lighting and technologies;
• examine the ways in which audiences make meaning and how different audiences engage with and share media artworks;
• draw on media arts from a range of cultures, times and locations as they experience media arts;
• explore the media arts and influences of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and of the Asia region;
• learn that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people have converted oral records to other technologies;
• explore social and cultural values and beliefs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples as represented in media artworks and consider how these may influence the media artworks they make;
• learn that over time there has been further development of different traditional and contemporary styles as they explore media forms;
• explore meaning and interpretation, forms and elements including structure, intent, character, settings, points of view, genre conventions and media conventions as they make and respond to media artworks;
• consider social, cultural and historical influences and representations in media arts;
• evaluate how established behaviours or conventions influence media artworks they engage with and make;
• maintain safety in use of technologies and in interaction with others, including the use of images and works of others;
• develop ethical practices and consider regulatory issues when using technology;
• build on their understanding from previous bands of the roles of artists and audiences as they engage with more diverse media artworks.

Skills

Experiment with the organisation of ideas to structure stories through media conventions and genres to create points of view in images, sounds and text.

Develop media representations to show familiar or shared social and cultural values and beliefs, including those of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

Develop and refine media production skills to shape the technical and symbolic elements of images, sounds and text for a specific purpose and meaning.

Plan, structure and design media artworks that engage audiences.

Present media artworks for different community and institutional contexts with consideration of ethical and regulatory issues.

Analyse how technical and symbolic elements are used in media artworks to create representations influenced by story, genre, values and points of view of particular audiences.

Identify specific features and purposes of media artworks from contemporary and past times to explore viewpoints and enrich their media arts making, starting with Australian media artworks including of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander media artworks.

Achievement Standard

By the end of Year 8, students identify and analyse how representations of social values and points of view are portrayed in the media artworks they make, distribute and view. They evaluate how they and other makers and users of media artworks from different cultures, times and places use genre and media conventions and technical and symbolic elements to make meaning. They identify and analyse the social and ethical responsibility of the makers and users of media artworks.

Students produce representations of social values and points of view in media artworks for particular audiences and contexts. They use genre and media conventions and shape technical and symbolic elements for specific purposes and meaning. They collaborate with others in design and production processes, and control equipment and technologies to achieve their intentions.

Years 7 and 8

In Music, students:

• build on their aural skills by identifying and manipulating rhythm, pitch, dynamics and expression, form and structure, timbre and texture in their listening, composing and performing;
• aurally identify layers within a texture;
• sing and play independent parts against contrasting parts;
• recognise rhythmic, melodic and harmonic patterns and beat groupings;
• understand their role within an ensemble and control tone and volume;
• perform with expression and technical control;
• identify a variety of audiences for which music is made;
• draw on music from a range of cultures, times and locations as they experience music;
• explore the music and influences of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and those of the Asia region;
• learn that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people have converted oral records to other technologies;
• learn that over time there has been further development of techniques used in traditional and contemporary styles of music as they explore form in music;
• explore meaning and interpretation, forms, and elements including rhythm, pitch, dynamics and expression, form and structure, timbre and texture as they make and respond to music;
• consider social, cultural and historical contexts of music;
• evaluate the expressive techniques used in music they listen to and experience in performance;
• maintain safety, correct posture and technique in using instruments and technologies;
• build on their understanding from previous bands of the roles of artists and audiences as they engage with more diverse music.

Skills

Experiment with texture and timbre in sound sources using aural skills.

Develop musical ideas, such as mood, by improvising, combining and manipulating the elements of music.

Practise and rehearse a variety of music, including Australian music to develop technical and expressive skills.

Structure compositions by combining and manipulating the elements of music using notation.

Perform and present a range of music, using techniques and expression appropriate to style.

Analyse composers’ use of the elements of music and stylistic features when listening to and interpreting music.

Identify and connect specific features and purposes of music from different eras to explore viewpoints and enrich their music making, starting with Australian music including music of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

Achievement Standard

By the end of Year 8, students identify and analyse how the elements of music are used in different styles and apply this knowledge in their performances and compositions. They evaluate musical choices they and others from different cultures, times and places make to communicate meaning as performers and composers.

Students manipulate the elements of music and stylistic conventions to compose music. They interpret, rehearse and perform songs and instrumental pieces in unison and in parts, demonstrating technical and expressive skills. They use aural skills, music terminology and symbols to recognise, memorise and notate features, such as melodic patterns in music they perform and compose.

Years 7 and 8

In Visual Arts, students:

• build on their awareness of how and why artists, craftspeople and designers realise their ideas through different visual representations, practices, processes and viewpoints;
• extend their thinking, understanding and use of perceptual and conceptual skills;
• continue to use and apply appropriate visual language and visual conventions with increasing complexity;
• consider the qualities and sustainable properties of materials, techniques, technologies and processes and combine these to create and produce solutions to their artworks;
• consider society and ethics, and economic, environmental and social factors;
• exhibit their artworks individually or collaboratively, basing the selection on a concept or theme;
• document the evolution of selected art styles and associated theories and/or ideologies;
• reflect on the ‘cause and effect’ of time periods, artists and art styles influencing later artists and their artworks;
• draw on artworks from a range of cultures, times and locations as they experience visual arts;
• explore the influences of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and those of the Asia region;
• learn that Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people have converted oral records to other technologies;
• learn that over time there has been further development of techniques used in traditional and contemporary styles as they explore different forms in visual arts;
• identify social relationships that have developed between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and other cultures in Australia, and explore how these are reflected in developments in visual arts;
• design, create and evaluate visual solutions to selected themes and/or concepts through a variety of visual arts forms, styles, techniques and/or processes as they make and respond to visual artworks;
• develop an informed opinion about artworks based on their research of current and past artists;
• examine their own culture and develop a deeper understanding of their practices as an artist who holds individual views about the world and global issues;
• acknowledge that artists and audiences hold different views about selected artworks, given contexts of time and place, and established ideologies;
• extend their understanding of safe visual arts practices and choose to use sustainable materials, techniques and technologies;
• build on their experience from the previous band to develop their understanding of the roles of artists and audiences.

Skills

Experiment with visual arts conventions and techniques, including exploration of techniques used by Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander artists, to represent a theme, concept or idea in their artwork.

Develop ways to enhance their intentions as artists through exploration of how artists use materials, techniques, technologies and processes.

Develop planning skills for art-making by exploring techniques and processes used by different artists.

Practise techniques and processes to enhance representation of ideas in their art-making.

Present artwork demonstrating consideration of how the artwork is displayed to enhance the artist’s intention to an audience.

Analyse how artists use visual conventions in artworks.

Identify and connect specific features and purposes of visual artworks from contemporary and past times to explore viewpoints and enrich their art-making, starting with Australian artworks including those of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples.

Achievement Standard

By the end of Year 8, students identify and analyse how other artists use visual conventions and viewpoints to communicate ideas and apply this knowledge in their art making. They explain how an artwork is displayed to enhance its meaning. They evaluate how they and others are influenced by artworks from different cultures, times and places.

Students plan their art making in response to exploration of techniques and processes used in their own and others’ artworks. They demonstrate use of visual conventions, techniques and processes to communicate meaning in their artworks.

The Australian Curriculum: Technologies describes two distinct but related subjects:

• Design and Technologies, in which students use design thinking and technologies to generate and produce designed solutions for authentic needs and opportunities;
• Digital Technologies, in which students use computational thinking and information systems to define, design and implement digital solutions.

Technologies enrich and impact on the lives of people and societies globally. Australia needs enterprising individuals who can make discerning decisions about the development and use of technologies and who can independently and collaboratively develop solutions to complex challenges and contribute to sustainable patterns of living. Technologies can play an important role in transforming, restoring and sustaining societies and natural, managed and constructed environments.

The Australian Curriculum: Technologies ensures that all students benefit from learning about and working with traditional, contemporary and emerging technologies that shape the world in which we live. By applying their knowledge and practical skills and processes when using technologies and other resources to create innovative solutions, independently and collaboratively, they develop knowledge, understanding and skills to respond creatively to current and future needs.

The practical nature of the Technologies learning area engages students in critical and creative thinking, including understanding interrelationships in systems when solving complex problems. A systematic approach to experimentation, problem-solving, prototyping and evaluation instils in students the value of planning and reviewing processes to realise ideas.

All young Australians should develop capacity for action and a critical appreciation of the processes through which technologies are developed and how technologies can contribute to societies. Students need opportunities to consider the use and impact of technological solutions on equity, ethics, and personal and social values. In creating solutions, as well as responding to the designed world, students consider desirable sustainable patterns of living, and contribute to preferred futures for themselves and others.

This rationale is extended and complemented by specific rationales for each Technologies subject.

The Australian Curriculum: Technologies aims to develop the knowledge, understanding and skills to ensure that, individually and collaboratively, students:

• investigate, design, plan, manage, create and evaluate solutions;
• are creative, innovative and enterprising when using traditional, contemporary and emerging technologies, and understand how technologies have developed over time;
• make informed and ethical decisions about the role, impact and use of technologies in the economy, environment and society for a sustainable future;
• engage confidently with and responsibly select and manipulate appropriate technologies − materials, data, systems, components, tools and equipment − when designing and creating solutions;
• critique, analyse and evaluate problems, needs or opportunities to identify and create solutions.

These aims are extended and complemented by specific aims for each Technologies subject.

Years 7 and 8

Learning in Design and Technologies builds on concepts, skills and processes developed in earlier years, and teachers will revisit, strengthen and extend these as needed.

By the end of Year 8 students will have had the opportunity to create designed solutions at least once in the following four technologies contexts: Engineering principles and systems, Food and fibre production, Food specialisations and Materials and technologies specialisations. Students should have opportunities to design and produce products, services and environments.

In Year 7 and 8 students investigate and select from a range of technologies − materials, systems, components, tools and equipment. They consider the ways characteristics and properties of technologies can be combined to design and produce sustainable designed solutions to problems for individuals and the community, considering society and ethics, and economic, environmental and social sustainability factors. Students use creativity, innovation and enterprise skills with increasing independence and collaboration.

Students respond to feedback from others and evaluate design processes used and designed solutions for preferred futures. They investigate design and technology professions and the contributions that each makes to society locally, regionally and globally through creativity, innovation and enterprise. Students evaluate the advantages and disadvantages of design ideas and technologies.

Using a range of technologies including a variety of graphical representation techniques to communicate, students generate and clarify ideas through sketching, modelling, perspective and orthogonal drawings. They use a range of symbols and technical terms in a range of contexts to produce patterns, annotated concept sketches and drawings, using scale, pictorial and aerial views to draw environments.

With greater autonomy, students identify the sequences and steps involved in design tasks. They develop plans to manage design tasks, including safe and responsible use of materials and tools, and apply management plans to successfully complete design tasks. Students establish safety procedures that minimise risk and manage a project with safety and efficiency in mind when making designed solutions.

Knowledge and Understanding

Investigate the ways in which products, services and environments evolve locally, regionally and globally and how competing factors including social, ethical and sustainability considerations are prioritised in the development of technologies and designed solutions for preferred futures.

Analyse how motion, force and energy are used to manipulate and control electromechanical systems when designing simple, engineered solutions.

Analyse how food and fibre are produced when designing managed environments and how these can become more sustainable.

Analyse how characteristics and properties of food determine preparation techniques and presentation when designing solutions for healthy eating.

Analyse ways to produce designed solutions through selecting and combining characteristics and properties of materials, systems, components, tools and equipment.

Processes and Production Skills

Critique needs or opportunities for designing and investigate, analyse and select from a range of materials, components, tools, equipment and processes to develop design ideas.

Generate, develop, test and communicate design ideas, plans and processes for various audiences using appropriate technical terms and technologies including graphical representation techniques.

Select and justify choices of materials, components, tools, equipment and techniques to effectively and safely make designed solutions.

Independently develop criteria for success to evaluate design ideas, processes and solutions and their sustainability.

Use project management processes when working individually and collaboratively to coordinate production of designed solutions.

Achievement Standard

By the end of Year 8, students explain factors that influence the design of products, services and environments to meet present and future needs. They explain the contribution of design and technology innovations and enterprise to society. Students explain how the features of technologies impact on designed solutions and influence design decisions for each of the prescribed technologies contexts.

Students create designed solutions for each of the prescribed technologies contexts based on an evaluation of needs or opportunities. They develop criteria for success, including sustainability considerations, and use these to judge the suitability of their ideas and designed solutions and processes. They create and adapt design ideas, make considered decisions and communicate to different audiences using appropriate technical terms and a range of technologies and graphical representation techniques. Students apply project management skills to document and use project plans to manage production processes. They independently and safely produce effective designed solutions for the intended purpose.

Years 7 and 8

Learning in Digital Technologies focuses on further developing understanding and skills in computational thinking such as decomposing problems and prototyping; and engaging students with a wider range of information systems as they broaden their experiences and involvement in national, regional and global activities.

By the end of Year 8, students will have had opportunities to create a range of digital solutions, such as interactive web applications or programmable multimedia assets or simulations of relationships between objects in the real world.

In Year 7 and 8, students analyse the properties of networked systems and their suitability and use for the transmission of data types. They acquire, analyse, validate and evaluate various types of data, and appreciate the complexities of storing and transmitting that data in digital systems. Students use structured data to model objects and events that shape the communities they actively engage with. They further develop their understanding of the vital role that data plays in their lives, and how the data and related systems define and are limited by technical, environmental, economic and social constraints.

They further develop abstractions by identifying common elements while decomposing apparently different problems and systems to define requirements, and recognise that abstractions hide irrelevant details for particular purposes. When defining problems, students identify the key elements of the problems and the factors and constraints at play. They design increasingly complex algorithms that allow data to be manipulated automatically, and explore different ways of showing the relationship between data elements to help computation, such as using pivot tables, graphs and clearly defined mark-up or rules. They progress from designing the user interface to considering user experience factors such as user expertise, accessibility and usability requirements.

They broaden their programming experiences to include general-purpose programming languages, and incorporate subprograms into their solutions. They predict and evaluate their developed and existing solutions, considering time, tasks, data and the safe and sustainable use of information systems, and anticipate any risks associated with the use or adoption of such systems.

Students plan and manage individual and team projects with some autonomy. They consider ways of managing the exchange of ideas, tasks and files, and techniques for monitoring progress and feedback. When communicating and collaborating online, students develop an understanding of different social contexts, for example acknowledging cultural practices and meeting legal obligations.

Knowledge and Understanding

Investigate how data is transmitted and secured in wired, wireless and mobile networks, and how the specifications affect performance.

Investigate how digital systems represent text, image and audio data in binary.

Processes and Production Skills

Acquire data from a range of sources and evaluate authenticity, accuracy and timeliness.

Analyse and visualise data using a range of software to create information, and use structured data to model objects or events.

Define and decompose real-world problems taking into account functional requirements and economic, environmental, social, technical and usability constraints.

Design the user experience of a digital system, generating, evaluating and communicating alternative designs.

Design algorithms represented diagrammatically and in English, and trace algorithms to predict output for a given input and to identify errors.

Implement and modify programs with user interfaces involving branching, iteration and functions in a general-purpose programming language.

Evaluate how student solutions and existing information systems meet needs, are innovative, and take account of future risks and sustainability.

Plan and manage projects that create and communicate ideas and information collaboratively online, taking safety and social contexts into account.

Achievement Standard

By the end of Year 8, students distinguish between different types of networks and defined purposes. They explain how text, image and audio data can be represented, secured and presented in digital systems.

Students plan and manage digital projects to create interactive information. They define and decompose problems in terms of functional requirements and constraints. Students design user experiences and algorithms incorporating branching and iterations, and test, modify and implement digital solutions. They evaluate information systems and their solutions in terms of meeting needs, innovation and sustainability. They analyse and evaluate data from a range of sources to model and create solutions. They use appropriate protocols when communicating and collaborating online.

Years 7 and 8

The Year 7 and 8 curriculum expands students’ knowledge, understanding and skills to help them achieve successful outcomes in classroom, leisure, social, movement and online situations. Students learn how to take positive action to enhance their own and others’ health, safety and wellbeing. They do this as they examine the nature of their relationships and other factors that influence people’s beliefs, attitudes, opportunities, decisions, behaviours and actions. Students demonstrate a range of help-seeking strategies that support them to access and evaluate health and physical activity information and services.

The curriculum for Years 7 and 8 supports students to refine a range of specialised knowledge, understanding and skills in relation to their health, safety, wellbeing, and movement competence and confidence. Students develop specialised movement skills and understanding in a range of physical activity settings. They analyse how body control and coordination influence movement composition and performance and learn to transfer movement skills and concepts to a variety of physical activities. Students explore the role that games and sports, outdoor recreation, lifelong physical activities, and rhythmic and expressive movement activities play in shaping cultures and identities. They reflect on and refine personal and social skills as they participate in a range of physical activities.

Focus areas to be addressed in Years 7 and 8 include:

• alcohol and other drugs (AD);
• food and nutrition (FN);
• health benefits of physical activity (HBPA);
• mental health and wellbeing (MH);
• relationships and sexuality (RS);
• safety (S);
• challenge and adventure activities (CA);
• games and sports (GS);
• lifelong physical activities (LLPA);
• rhythmic and expressive movement activities (RE).

Being healthy, safe and active

Investigate the impact of transition and change on identities.

Evaluate strategies to manage personal, physical and social changes that occur as they grow older.

Practise and apply strategies to seek help for themselves or others.

Investigate and select strategies to promote health, safety and wellbeing.

Communicating and interacting for health and wellbeing

Investigate the benefits of relationships and examine their impact on their own and others’ health and wellbeing.

Analyse factors that influence emotions , and develop strategies to demonstrate empathy and sensitivity.

Evaluate health information and communicate their own and others’ health concerns.

Contributing to healthy and active communities

Plan and use health practices, behaviours and resources to enhance health, safety and wellbeing of their communities.

Plan and implement strategies for connecting to natural and built environments to promote the health and wellbeing of their communities.

Investigate the benefits to individuals and communities of valuing diversity and promoting inclusivity.

Moving our body

Use feedback to improve body control and coordination when performing specialised movement skills in a variety of situations.

Practise, apply and transfer movement concepts and strategies with and without equipment.

Understanding movement

Participate in physical activities that develop health-related and skill-related fitness components, and create and monitor personal fitness plans.

Demonstrate and explain how the elements of effort, space, time, objects and people can enhance movement sequences.

Participate in and investigate cultural and historical significance of a range of physical activities.

Learning through movement

Practise and apply personal and social skills when undertaking a range of roles in physical activities.

Evaluate and justify reasons for decisions and choices of action when solving movement challenges.

Modify rules and scoring systems to allow for fair play, safety and inclusive participation.

By the end of Year 8, students evaluate strategies and resources to manage changes and transitions and investigate their impact on identities. Students evaluate the impact on wellbeing of relationships and valuing diversity. They analyse factors that influence emotional responses. They investigate strategies and practices that enhance their own, others’ and community health, safety and wellbeing. They investigate and apply movement concepts and select strategies to achieve movement and fitness outcomes. They examine the cultural and historical significance of physical activities and examine how connecting to the environment can enhance health and wellbeing.

Students apply personal and social skills to establish and maintain respectful relationships and promote safety, fair play and inclusivity. They demonstrate skills to make informed decisions, and propose and implement actions that promote their own and others’ health, safety and wellbeing. Students demonstrate control and accuracy when performing specialised movement sequences and skills. They apply movement concepts and refine strategies to suit different movement situations. They apply the elements of movement to compose and perform movement sequences.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages is designed to enable all students to engage in learning a language in addition to English. The design of the Australian Curriculum: Languages recognises the features that languages share as well as the distinctiveness of specific languages.

There are aspects of the curriculum that pertain to all languages. The key concepts of language, culture and learning, as described in the Shape of the Australian Curriculum: Languages, underpin the learning area. They also provide the basis for a common rationale and set of aims for all languages.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages includes language–specific curricula for world languages and a Framework for Aboriginal Languages and Torres Strait Islander Languages.

Language specificity

The curriculum content and achievement standards are different for each specific language because of inherent differences in the languages themselves.

Each language has its own distinctive structure, systems, conventions for use, related culture(s), place in the Australian and international communities, as well as its own history in Australian education.

Diversity of language learners

Understanding who learners are, as language learners and as young people, is the starting point for developing their language learning. An increasingly varied range of students now study languages in Australian classrooms. The changing pattern of migration to Australia is extending the range of languages students bring with them to school. Education systems seek to provide for this diversity of language background and for the fact that languages classrooms include students with varying degrees of experience of and proficiency in the language being learnt, as well as their particular affiliations with additional languages.

Learners come to learning languages with diverse linguistic, cultural and personal profiles, bringing distinctive biographies which include individual histories; biographies; previous experiences of and relationships with the target language and particular motivations, expectations, and aspirations.

As unique, social and cultural beings, students interpret the world and make sense of their experiences through their own social and cultural traditions, understanding and values.

Learners of languages in Australia comprise three major groups:

• second language learners
• background language learners
• first language learners.

Second language learners are those who are introduced to learning the target language at school as an additional, new language. The first language used before they start school and/or the language they use at home is not the language being learnt.

Background language learners are those who may use the language at home, not necessarily exclusively, and have varying degrees of knowledge of and proficiency in the language being learnt. These learners have a base for literacy development in the language.

First language learners are users of the language being learnt who have undertaken at least primary schooling in the target language. They have had their primary socialisation as well as initial literacy development in that language and use the target language at home. For Aboriginal languages and Torres Strait Islander languages, first language learners are learners whose primary socialisation is in the language being learnt and who may or may not have yet developed initial literacy.

Within each of these groups, there are differences in proficiency in the language being learnt. It is acknowledged that the span of language experiences of background learners is particularly wide, and learners in this group are likely to have quite diverse affiliations with the target language. Nevertheless, for pragmatic reasons, it is not feasible to identify further groupings.

A framework is being developed for Aboriginal languages and Torres Strait Islander languages that caters for different learner pathways that also take into account the state of the particular language involved.

Through learning languages, students acquire:

• communication skills in the language being learnt;
• an intercultural capability, and an understanding of the role of language and culture in communication;
• a capability for reflection on language use and language learning.

Language learning provides the opportunity for students to engage with the linguistic and cultural diversity of the world and its peoples, to reflect on their understanding of experience in various aspects of social life, and on their own participation and ways of being in the world.

Learning languages broadens students’ horizons in relation to the personal, social, cultural and employment opportunities that an increasingly interconnected and interdependent world presents. The interdependence of countries and communities means people in all spheres of life are required to negotiate experiences and meanings across languages and cultures. Despite its status as a world language, a capability in English only is no longer sufficient. A bilingual or plurilingual capability is the norm in most parts of the world.

Learning languages:

• extends the capability to communicate and extends literacy repertoires;
• strengthens understanding of the nature of language, of culture, and of the processes of communication;
• develops intercultural capability;
• develops understanding of and respect for diversity and difference, and an openness to different experiences and perspectives;
• develops understanding of how culture shapes worldviews and extends learners’ understanding of themselves, their own heritage, values, culture and identity;
• strengthens intellectual, analytical and reflective capabilities, and enhances creative and critical thinking.

Learning languages also contributes to strengthening the community’s social, economic and international development capabilities. Language capabilities represent linguistic and cultural resources through which the community can engage socially, culturally and economically, in domains which include business, trade, science, law, education, tourism, diplomacy, international relations, health and communications.

Learning Aboriginal languages and Torres Strait Islander languages meets the needs and rights of young people to learn their own languages and recognises their significance in the language ecology of Australia. For Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students, learning their own languages is crucial to overall learning and achievements, to developing a sense of identity and recognition and understanding of language, culture, Country and Place. For all students, learning Aboriginal languages and Torres Strait Islander languages provides a distinctive means of understanding the country in which they live, including the relationship between land, the environment and people. The ongoing and necessary reclamation and revitalisation of these languages also contribute to reconciliation.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages aims to develop the knowledge, understanding and skills to ensure students:

• communicate in the target language;
• understand language, culture, and learning and their relationship, and thereby develop an intercultural capability in communication;
• understand themselves as communicators.

These three aims are interrelated and provide the basis for the two organising strands: Communicating and Understanding. The three aims are common to all languages.

Language and culture

The interrelationship of language, culture and learning provides the foundation for the Australian Curriculum: Languages.

In the languages learning area the focus is on both language and culture, as students learn to communicate meaningfully across linguistic and cultural systems, and different contexts. This process involves reflection and analysis, as students move between the new language being learnt and their own existing language(s). It is a reciprocal and dynamic process which develops language use within intercultural dimensions of learning experiences. It is not a ‘one plus one’ relationship between two languages and cultures, where each language and culture stay separate and self-contained. Comparison and referencing between (at least) two languages and cultures build understanding of how languages ‘work’, how they relate to each other and how language and culture shape and reflect experience; that is, the experience of language using and language learning. The experience of being in two worlds at once involves noticing, questioning and developing awareness of how language and culture shape identity.

Learner background and time-on-task are two major variables that influence language learning and they provide the basis for the structure of the Australian Curriculum: Languages. These variables are addressed through the specification of content and the description of achievement standards according to pathways and learning sequences respectively.

Pathways

In the Australian Curriculum: Languages, pathways for second language learners, background language learners and first language learners have been developed as appropriate to cater for the dominant group(s) of students learning each specific language within the current Australian context. For the majority of languages, one curriculum pathway has been developed for Years F–10, catering for the dominant cohort of learners for that language in the current Australian context. For Chinese, pathways have been developed for three learner groups: first language learners, background language learners and second language learners.

The Framework for Aboriginal languages and Torres Strait Islander Languages includes three learner pathways:

• first language learner pathway;
• revival language learner pathway;
• second language learner pathway.

Sequences of learning

The design of the Australian Curriculum: Languages takes account of different entry points into language learning across Foundation – Year 10, which reflects current practice in languages.

For the second language learner pathway and the background language learner pathway, there are two learning sequences:

• Foundation–Year 10 sequence;
• Years 7–10 (Year 7 Entry) sequence.

For the first language learner pathway, there is one learning sequence:

• Years 7–10 (Year 7 Entry) sequence.

Content and achievement standards are described initially in a three-year band for Foundation–Year 2 followed by two-year bands of learning: Years 3–4; Years 5–6, Years 7–8 and Years 9–10.

The Framework for Aboriginal Languages and Torres Strait Islander Languages is written in the bands Foundation – Year 2, Years 3–6 and Years 7–10. In the absence of pedagogical evidence across the country for all these languages, the broader band distinctions provide maximum local flexibility in curriculum development.

Content structure

The content of the Australian Curriculum: Languages is organised through two interrelated strands which realise the three aims. The two strands are:

• Communicating: using language for communicative purposes in interpreting, creating and exchanging meaning;
• Understanding: analysing language and culture as a resource for interpreting and creating meaning.

The strands reflect three important aspects of language learning:

1) communication.

2) analysis of aspects of language and culture.

3) reflection that involves:

1. reflection on the experience of communicating;

2. reflection on comparative dimensions of the languages available in students’ repertoires (for example, the first language in relation to second language and self in relation to others).

Strands and sub-strands

A set of sub-strands has been identified within each strand, which reflects dimensions of language use and the related content to be taught and learned. The strands and sub-strands do not operate in isolation but are integrated in relation to language use for different purposes in different contexts. The relative contribution of each sub-strand differs for described languages, pathways and bands of learning. The sub-strands are further differentiated according to a set of ‘threads’ that support the internal organisation of content in each sub-strand. These ‘threads’ are designed to capture (1) range and variety in the scope of learning and (2) a means for expressing the progression of content across the learning sequences.

Communicating:

Using language for communicative purposes in interpreting, creating and exchanging meaning:

1.1 Socialising
Interacting orally and in writing to exchange, ideas, opinions, experiences, thoughts and feelings; and participating in planning, negotiating, deciding and taking action.

1.2 Informing
Obtaining, processing, interpreting and conveying information through a range of oral, written and multimodal texts; developing and applying knowledge.

1.3 Creating
Engaging with imaginative experience by participating in, responding to and creating a range of texts, such as stories, songs, drama and music.

1.4 Translating
Moving between languages and cultures orally and in writing, recognising different interpretations and explaining these to others.

1.5 Reflecting
Participating in intercultural exchange, questioning reactions and assumptions; and considering how interaction shapes communication and identity.

Understanding:
Analysing and understanding language and culture as resources for interpreting and shaping meaning in intercultural exchange:

2.1 Systems of language
Understanding language as a system, including sound, writing, grammatical and textual conventions.

2.2 Language variation and change
Understanding how languages vary in use (register, style, standard and non-standard varieties) and change over time and place.

2.3 The role of language and culture
Analysing and understanding the role of language and culture in the exchange of meaning.

ACARA is committed to the development of a high-quality curriculum that promotes excellence and equity in education for all Australian students.

All students are entitled to rigorous, relevant and engaging learning programs drawn from the Australian Curriculum: Languages. Teachers take account of the range of their students’ current levels of learning, strengths, goals and interests and make adjustments where necessary. The three-dimensional design of the Australian Curriculum, comprising learning areas, general capabilities and cross-curriculum priorities, provides teachers with flexibility to cater for the diverse needs of students across Australia and to personalise their learning.

More detailed advice for schools and teachers on using the Australian Curriculum to meet diverse learning needs is available under Student Diversity on the Australian Curriculum website.

Students with disability

The Disability Discrimination Act 1992 and the Disability Standards for Education 2005 require education and training service providers to support the rights of students with disability to access the curriculum on the same basis as students without disability.

Many students with disability are able to achieve educational standards commensurate with their peers, as long as the necessary adjustments are made to the way in which they are taught and to the means through which they demonstrate their learning.

In some cases curriculum adjustments are necessary to provide equitable opportunities for students to access age-equivalent content in the Australian Curriculum: Languages. Teachers can draw from content at different levels along the Foundation to Year 10 sequence. Teachers can also use the extended general capabilities learning continua in Literacy, Numeracy and Personal and social capability to adjust the focus of learning according to individual student need.

English as an additional language or dialect

Languages play a crucial role in the educational experience of students and in the curriculum as a whole. Given the diversity of students in Australian education, it is important to recognise that a range of languages is used either as part of the formal curriculum or as part of learners’ socialisation within and outside the school.

Learners bring their first language or languages as the one(s) they use for their initial socialisation in their family or community. For the majority, this is English. For many, it can be a range of different languages. Learners also encounter the language or languages of instruction at school. For most in Australia, this is English. For many students in Australia, the language of instruction is not the same as their first language. These students may learn through English as an additional language/dialect (EALD) programs.

In contemporary understandings of language acquisition, development and learning all the languages learners experience in their socialisation and education form part of learners’ distinctive linguistic and cultural repertoires. These are variously developed by both the experience of schooling and broader social community experience. These repertoires are an integral part of learners’ identities and what they bring to the learning of additional languages as part of the languages learning area within the school curriculum.

While the curriculum for languages primarily addresses the learning of languages, this learning cannot be separated from the development of learners’ more general communicative repertoires. It is through such a relational and holistic approach to languages education that learners develop their capabilities in knowing and using multiple languages. Learners extend their communicative and conceptual development, learning and identity formation.

In various kinds of bilingual programs, students are afforded an opportunity to learn through the medium of English and another language (learners’ first or additional language). These programs are of particular value in ensuring learners continue to develop at least two languages that are of value to them. They are of value to both their conceptual development and learning and to their identity formation.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities recognise the importance of literacy to their children. They support literacy education programs that are founded on establishing literacy in their children’s first language. These are the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages their communities use. Literacy in English is regarded as concomitant on first establishing students’ literacy in their first language. Although most bilingual programs in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages are designed to help students’ transition into learning in English, their fundamental value is in the development of bilingual literacy. Strengthening the bilingual literacy of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students can significantly contribute to improving their overall academic achievement and success.

A national English as an Additional Language or Dialect: Teacher Resource has been developed to support teachers in making the Australian Curriculum: Foundation – Year 10 in each learning area accessible to EALD students.

Gifted and talented students

Teachers can use the Australian Curriculum: Languages flexibly to meet the individual learning needs of gifted and talented students.

Teachers can enrich learning by providing students with opportunities to work with learning area content in more depth or breadth; emphasising specific aspects of the general capabilities learning continua (for example, the higher order cognitive skills of the Critical and creative thinking capability); and/or focusing on cross-curriculum priorities. Teachers can also accelerate student learning by drawing on content from later levels in the Australian Curriculum: Languages and/or from local state and territory teaching and learning materials.

In the Australian Curriculum, general capabilities encompass knowledge, skills, behaviours, and dispositions that, together with curriculum content in each learning area and the cross-curriculum priorities, will enable students to live and work successfully in the 21st century.

There are seven general capabilities:

• literacy;
• numeracy;
• information and communication technology (ICT) capability;
• critical and creative thinking;
• personal and social capability;
• ethical understanding;
• intercultural understanding.

In the Australian Curriculum: Languages, general capabilities are identified wherever they are developed or applied in content descriptions.

They are also identified where they offer opportunities to add depth and richness to student learning through content elaborations. Icons indicate where general capabilities have been identified in languages content. Teachers may find further opportunities to incorporate explicit teaching of the capabilities, depending on their choice of activities.

Literacy

Learning languages develops overall literacy. It is in this sense ‘value added’, strengthening literacy-related capabilities that are transferable across languages, both the language being learnt and all other languages that are part of the learner’s repertoire. Languages learning also strengthens literacy-related capabilities across domains of use, such as the academic domain and the domains of home language use, and across learning areas.

Literacy development involves conscious attention and focused learning. It involves skills and knowledge that need guidance, time and support to develop. These skills include the:

• ability to decode and encode from sound to written systems;
• the learning of grammatical, orthographic and textual conventions;
• development of semantic, pragmatic and interpretative, critical and reflective literacy skills.

Literacy development for second language learners is cognitively demanding. It involves these same elements but often without the powerful support of a surrounding oral culture and context. The strangeness of the additional language requires scaffolding. In the language classroom, analysis is prioritised alongside experience. Explicit, explanatory and exploratory talk around language and literacy is a core element. Learners are supported to develop their own meta–awareness, to be able to think and talk about how the language works and about how they learn to use it. Similarly, for first language learners, literacy development that extends to additional domains and contexts of use requires comparative analysis that extends literacy development in their first language and English.

Numeracy

Learning languages affords opportunities for learners to use the target language to develop skills in numeracy, to understand, analyse, categorise, critically respond to and use mathematics in different contexts. This includes processes such as using and understanding patterns, order and relationships to reinforce concepts such as number, time or space in their own and in others’ cultural and linguistic systems.

Information and communication technology (ICT) capability

Learning languages is enhanced through the use of multimodal resources, digital environments and technologies in the target language. Accessing live target language environments and texts via digital media contributes to the development of information technology capabilities as well as linguistic and cultural knowledge. Accessing different real-time contexts extends the boundaries of the classroom.

Critical and creative thinking

In learning a language, students interact with people and ideas from diverse backgrounds and perspectives, which enhances critical thinking, reflection and encourages creative, divergent and imaginative thinking. By learning to notice, connect, compare and analyse aspects of the target language, students develop critical, analytic and problem-solving skills.

Personal and social capability

Interacting effectively in an additional language and with people of diverse language backgrounds involves negotiating and interpreting meaning in a range of social and cultural situations. This involves understanding and empathising, which are important elements of social and intercultural competence. Being open-minded and recognising that people view and experience the world in different ways, and learning to interact in a collaborative and respectful manner are key elements of personal and social competence.

Ethical understanding

When learning another language, students are taught explicitly to acknowledge and value difference in their interactions with others and to develop respect for diverse ways of perceiving and acting in the world. Opportunities are provided to monitor and to adjust their own ethical points of view. In learning Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages, students should consider appropriate ethical behaviour in terms of engaging with the owners and custodians of the languages. Similar consideration is required when interpreting and translating or when collecting and analysing primary research data.

Intercultural understanding

The development of intercultural understanding is a central aim of learning languages, as it is integral to communicating in the context of diversity, the development of global citizenship and lifelong learning. Students bring to their learning various preconceptions, assumptions and orientations shaped by their existing language(s) culture(s) to their learning that can be challenged by the new language experience. Learning to move between the existing and new languages and cultures is integral to language learning and is the key to the development of students’ intercultural capability. By learning a new language, or learning to use an existing language in new domains and contexts, students are able to notice, compare and reflect on things previously taken for granted; to explore their own linguistic, social and cultural practices as well as those associated with the target language. They begin to see the complexity, variability and sometimes the contradictions involved in using language.

Learning a new language does not require forsaking the first language. It is an enriching and cumulative process, which broadens the learners’ communicative repertoire, providing additional resources for interpreting and making meaning. Learners come to realise that interactions between different people through the use of different languages also involves interactions between the different kinds of knowledge, understanding and values that are articulated through language(s) and culture(s). They realise that successful intercultural communication is not only determined by what they do or say, but also by what members of the other language and culture understand from what they say or do.

The Australian Curriculum gives special attention to three cross-curriculum priorities:

• Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures;
• Asia and Australia’s engagement with Asia;
• sustainability.

The cross-curriculum priorities are embedded in the curriculum and will have a strong but varying presence depending on their relevance to each of the learning areas.

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities are strong, rich and diverse. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander identity is central to this priority. It is intrinsically linked to living and learning in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, deep knowledge of traditions and holistic world view.

A conceptual framework based on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples’ unique sense of identity has been developed as a tool for embedding Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures within the Australian curriculum. This sense of identity is approached through the interconnected concepts of Country/Place, people and culture. Embracing these elements enhances all areas of the curriculum.

The Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander priority provides opportunities for all learners to deepen their knowledge of Australia by engaging with the world’s oldest continuous living cultures. This knowledge and understanding will enrich their ability to participate positively in the evolving history of Australia.

A direct way of learning about and engaging with diverse Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities is to learn an Aboriginal language and/or a Torres Strait Islander language. There is an inseparable connection between Aboriginal languages and Torres Strait Islander languages and land/sea, Country/Place, the environment, fauna and flora. Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures are an integral part of the learning of Aboriginal languages and Torres Strait Islander languages.

In learning all languages, there is a scope for making interlinguistic and intercultural comparisons across languages, including Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages, to develop understanding of concepts related to the linguistic landscape of Australia and to the concepts of language and culture in general.

Asia and Australia’s engagement with Asia

In the Australian Curriculum: Languages, the cross-curriculum priority of Asia and Australia’s engagement with Asia enables the development of rich and engaging content and contexts for developing students’ capabilities to engage with the languages and cultures of Asia and of people of Asian heritage within Australia.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages enables students to learn the languages of the Asian region, learning to communicate and interact in interculturally appropriate ways, exploring concepts, experiences and perspectives from within and across Asian cultures.

In the languages learning area, students develop an appreciation for the place of Australia within the Asian region, including the interconnections of languages and cultures, peoples and communities, histories and economies. Students learn how Australia is situated within the Asian region, how our national linguistic and cultural identity is continuously evolving both locally, regionally and within an international context.

Sustainability

In the Australian Curriculum: Languages, the priority of sustainability provides a context for developing students’ capability to communicate ideas, understanding and perspectives on issues and concepts related to the environment.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages contributes to students’ capabilities to investigate, analyse and communicate concepts and understandings related to sustainability in broad contexts, and to advocate, generate and evaluate actions for sustainable futures. Within each language, students engage with a range of texts focused on concepts related to sustainability. These include:

• environment;
• conservation;
• social and political change;
• linguistic and cultural ecologies;
• change, both within the target language and culture, and across languages and cultures in general.

In this way, students develop knowledge, skills and understanding about sustainability within particular cultural contexts. This is crucial in the context of national and international concerns about, for example, climate change, food shortages and alternative ways of caring for land and agriculture. Through developing a capability to interact with others, negotiating meaning and mutual understanding respectfully and reflecting on communication, students learn to live and work in ways that are both productive and sustainable.

Learning Aboriginal languages and Torres Strait Islander languages contributes to the global effort to exchange knowledge among people with varied practices in caring for the land. It also contributes to the reconciliation process in Australia and goals for language revival.

Accent

A manner of pronunciation of a language which marks speakers as belonging to identifiable categories such as geographical or ethnic origin, social class or generation.

Accent marks

Marks placed on a letter to indicate pronunciation, stress or intonation, or to indicate a different meaning or different grammatical usage for the word within which they appear. For example, résumé, piñata, ou/où.

Accuracy

Production of structurally correct forms of the target language.

Adjective

A word that modifies or describes a noun or pronoun. For example, astonishing in an astonishing discovery.

Adverb

A word class that may modify or qualify a verb, an adjective or another adverb. For example, beautifully in she sings beautifully; really in he is really interesting; very and slowly in she walks very slowly.

Adverbial

A word or group of words that functions as an adverb.

Aesthetic

Relates to a sense of beauty or appreciation of artistic expression.

Alliteration

A recurrence of the same consonant sounds at the beginning of words in close succession (for example, ripe, red raspberry)

Audience

Intended readers, listeners or viewers.

Authentic (texts/materials)

Texts or materials produced for ‘real-life’ purposes and contexts as opposed to being created specifically for learning tasks or language practice.

Author

A composer or originator of a work (for example, a novel, film, website, speech, essay, autobiography).

Bilingualism

An ability to use two or more languages.

Biography

A detailed account of an individual’s life; a text genre that lends itself to different modes of expression and construction. In the context of intercultural language learning, the concept of biography can be considered in relation to identity, to the formation of identity over time, and to the understanding that language is involved in the shaping and expressing of identity.

Character components

Individual elements of a written character which have a separate linguistic identity.

Characters

(i) graphic symbols used in writing in some languages
(ii) assumed roles in dramatic performance

Clause

A grammatical unit that contains a subject and a predicate (verb) and expresses the complete proposition.

CLIL

Content and language integrated learning. An approach to learning content through an additional language.

Code-switching

A use of more than one language in a single utterance. For example, Papa, can you buy me a panini, please? A common feature of bilingual and multilingual language use.

Cognates

Similar or identical words which have shared origins. For example, father (English), Vater (German) and pater (Latin) have a shared origin. Gratitude (English) and gratitud (Spanish) are both derived from gratitudo (Latin). English ship and skiff share the same Germanic origin.

Cohesion

Grammatical or lexical relationships that bind different parts of a text together and give it unity. Cohesion is achieved through various devices such as connectives, ellipses and word associations. These associations include synonyms, antonyms (for example, study/laze about, ugly/beautiful), repetition (for example, work, work, work – that’s all we do!) and collocation (for example, friend and pal in, My friend did me a big favour last week. She’s been a real pal.)

Collocation

Words that typically occur in close association and in particular sequence. For example, salt and pepper rather than pepper and salt and ladies and gentlemen rather than gentlemen and ladies.

Communication

A mutual and reciprocal exchange of meaning.

Communicative competence

An acquired capability to understand and interact in context using the target language (TL). Defined by the use of appropriate phonological, lexical, grammatical, sociolinguistic and intercultural elements.

Complex sentence

A sentence with more than one clause. In the following examples, the subordinate clauses are indicated by square brackets: I took my umbrella [because it was raining]; The man [who came to dinner] is my brother.

Complexity

A degree to which language use is complex as opposed to simple. Elements of language complexity include:

Composing

A process of producing written, spoken, graphic, visual or multi-modal texts. It includes:
It also includes applying knowledge and control of language forms, features and structures required to complete the task.

Compound sentence

A sentence with two or more main clauses of equal grammatical status, usually marked by a coordinating conjunction such as or, and, but. In the following examples, the main clauses are indicated by square brackets: [Alice came home this morning] [but she didn’t stay long]. [Kim is an actor], [Pat is a teacher], [and Sam is an architect].

Comprehension strategies

Strategies and processes used by listeners, readers and viewers of text to understand and make meaning. These include:
making hypotheses based on illustrations or text layout:

• drawing on language knowledge and experience (for example, gender forms);
• listening for intonation or expression cues;
• interpreting grapho-phonic, semantic and syntactic cues.

Comprehension/comprehending

An active process of making/constructing/deciphering meaning of language input through listening, reading, viewing, touching (as in braille) and combinations of these modes. It involves different elements: decoding, working out meaning, evaluating and imagining. The process draws upon the learner’s existing knowledge and understanding, text–processing strategies and capabilities; for example, inferencing or applying knowledge of text types and social and cultural resources.

Concrete language

A language used to refer to the perceptible and material world and to particular persons, places and objects. For example, school, girl; as opposed to abstract language, used to refer to ideas or concepts removed from the material world such as peace, kindness, beauty.

Conjunction

A part of speech that signals relationships between people, things, events, ideas. For example, Sophie and her mother might come and visit, or they might stay at home. The conjunction and links the two participants, while or links alternative options.

Content

A subject matter used as a vehicle for language learning.

Context

An environment and circumstances in which a text is created or interpreted. Context can include the general social, historical and cultural conditions in which a text exists or the specific features of its immediate environment, such as participants, roles, relationships and setting. The term is also used to refer to the wording surrounding an unfamiliar word that a reader or listener uses to understand its meaning.

Convention

An accepted language or communicative practice that has developed and become established over time. For example, use of punctuation or directionality.

Create

Develop and/or produce spoken, written or multimodal texts in print or digital forms.

Cues

Sources of information used to facilitate comprehension of language, that may be visual, grammatical, gestural or contextual.

Culture

In earlier models of language teaching and learning, culture was represented as a combination of literary and historical resources, and visible, functional aspects of a community group’s way of life such as food, celebrations and folklore. While these elements of culture are parts of cultural experience and organisation, current orientations to language teaching and learning employ a less static model of culture. Culture is understood as a framework in which things come to be seen as having meaning. It involves the lens through which:

• people see, think, interpret the world and experience;
• make assumptions about self and others;
• understand and represent individual and community identity.

Culture involves understandings about ‘norms’ and expectations, which shape perspectives and attitudes. It can be defined as social practices, patterns of behaviour, and organisational processes and perspectives associated with the values, beliefs and understandings shared by members of a community or cultural group. Language, culture and identity are understood to be closely interrelated and involved in the shaping and expression of each other. The intercultural orientation to language teaching and learning is informed by this understanding.

De-centre

A capacity to step outside familiar frames of reference, to consider alternative views, experiences and perspectives and to look critically and objectively at one’s own linguistic and cultural behaviour.

Decode

A process of working out the meaning of a text. Decoding strategies involve readers/listeners/viewers drawing on contextual, lexical, alphabetic, grammatical and phonic knowledge to decipher meaning. Readers who decode effectively combine these forms of knowledge fluently and automatically, using meaning to recognise when they make an error and to self-correct.

Dialect

A variant of a language that is characteristic of a region or social group.

Diaspora

A scattered population with a common origin in a smaller geographical area.

Digital media

Various platforms via which people communicate electronically.

Digital texts

Audio, visual or multimodal texts produced through digital or electronic technology. They may be interactive and include animations or hyperlinks. Examples of digital texts include DVDs, websites and e-literature.

Digraph

Two letters that represent a single sound:

• vowel digraphs have two vowels (for example, ‘oo’, ‘ea’);
• consonant digraphs have two consonants (for example, ‘sh’, ‘th’).

Dipthongs

Two vowel sounds pronounced in a single syllable with the individual vowel sounds distinguished. (For example, hour)

Directionality

A direction in which writing/script occurs, for example, from left to right, right to left.

Encode

A process of changing spoken language into symbols of written/digital language.

Enunciation

A clear and distinct pronunciation of language.

Face

A ‘socio-dynamic’ term which concerns self-delineated worth that comes from knowing one’s status. Relates to concepts such as reputation, self-respect, honour and prestige. A key element of social relations in Chinese, Japanese and many other cultures.

Filler

A sound or word used in spoken conversation to signal a pause, hesitation or unfinished contribution. For example, I went to the station…er… then I caught a train… Frequent use of fillers characterises early stages of second language (L2) development, but proficient speakers and first language (L1) speakers also use them as an opportunity to reflect or recast.

Fluency

An ability to produce spoken or written language with appropriate phrasing, rhythm and pace. It involves the smooth flow of language, lack of hesitation or undue pausing and characterises the largely accurate use and automation of the target language.

Form-focused learning activities

Activities designed to rehearse, practise, control and demonstrate particular language structures, forms or features. For example, drills, rehearsed role plays/dialogues, games and songs, set sequences of language patterns.

Formulaic language

Words or expressions which are commonly used in fixed patterns and learned as such without grammatical analysis. For example, Once upon a time (story-starter); G’day, how are you going?(greeting in Australian English).

Framing

A way in which elements of text are arranged to create a specific interpretation of the whole.

Genre

A category used to classify text types and language use; characterised by distinguishing features such as subject matter, form, function and intended audience. Examples of genres typically used in early language learning include greetings, classroom instructions and apologies. More advanced language proficiency includes the ability to use genres such as narrative or persuasive text, creative performance and debates.

The language we use and the description of language as a system. In describing language, attention is paid to both structure (form) and meaning (function) at the level of the word, the sentence and the text.

Grapho-phonic knowledge

Knowledge of how letters in printed language relate to the sounds of the language and of how symbols (letters, characters) represent spoken language.

Homophone

A word identical in pronunciation with another but different in meaning (for example, bare and bear, air and heir).

Honorific

A grammatical form, typically a word or affix, that has at least part of its meaning the relative social status of the speaker in relation to the addressee, other participant or context. Parts of speech which signify respect, politeness and emphasize social distance or status.

Hybrid texts

Composite texts resulting from a mixing of elements from different sources or genres. For example, email, which combines the immediacy of talk and the expectation of a reply with the permanence of print.

Hypermedia

A multimedia system in which related items and forms of information, such as data, texts, graphics, video and audio, are linked and can be presented together by a hypertext program.

Hypertext

A text which contains links to other texts.

Identity

A person’s conception and expression of individuality or group affiliation, self-concept and self-representation. Identity is closely connected to both culture and language. Thinking and talking about the self is influenced by the cultural frames, which are offered by different languages and cultural systems. Identity is not fixed. Second language learners’ experience with different linguistic and cultural systems introduces them to alternative ways of considering the nature and the possibilities associated with identity.

Ideograph

A graphic character that indicates meanings without reference to the sounds used to pronounce the word.

Idiomatic expressions

A group of (more or less) fixed words having a meaning not deducible from the individual words. Idioms are typically informal expressions used by particular social groups and need to be explained as one unit (for example, I am over the moon, on thin ice, a fish out of water, fed up to the back teeth).

Indicative hours

An indication for the purposes of curriculum development of the assumption about learning time on task.

Infinitive

A base form of a verb.

Input

Direct contact with and experience of the target language; the stimulus required for language acquisition and learning. Input can take multiple forms and be received through different modes.

Intensifiers

Words that are usually used with adjectives to emphasise their meaning and are expressed by means of an adverb (for example, very interesting, awfully boring)

Intercultural capability

An ability to understand and to engage in the relationship between language, culture and people from diverse backgrounds and experience. This involves understanding the dynamic and interdependent nature of both language and culture, that communicating and interacting in different languages involves interacting with values, beliefs and experiences as well as with words and grammars. An intercultural capability involves being open to different perspectives, being flexible and curious, responsive and reflective; being able to decentre, to look objectively at one’s own cultural ways of thinking and behaving, and at how these affect attitudes to others, shade assumptions and shape behaviours. Characteristics of an intercultural capability include cognitive and communicative flexibility and an orientation and ability to act in ways that are inclusive and ethical in relation to diversity and difference.

Intercultural language teaching and learning

An orientation to language teaching and learning that informs current curriculum design; framed by the understanding that language and culture are dynamic, interconnected systems of meaning-making; that proficiency in an additional language involves cultural and intercultural as well as linguistic capabilities. The focus is on developing communicative proficiency and on moving between language–culture systems. It includes the reflexive and reciprocal dimension of attention to learners’ own language(s) and cultural frame(s).

Interpret

In the context of L2 learning, interpret refers to two distinct processes:

• the act of translation from one language to another;
• the process of understanding and explaining; the ability to conceive significance and construct meaning, and to explain to self or others.

Intonation

A key component of communication, involving patterns of pitch and melody of spoken language that can be used like punctuation; for example, to express surprise or suggest a question, to shade, accentuate or diminish emphasis or meaning, and to regulate turn-taking in conversations.

Language

A human cognitive and communicative capability which makes it possible to communicate, to create and comprehend meaning, to build and sustain relationships, to represent and shape knowledge, and to imagine, analyse, express and evaluate.

Language is described and employed:

• as code – comprising systems, rules, a fixed body of knowledge; for example, grammar and vocabulary, sound and writing systems
  as social practice – used to do things, create relationships, interact with others, represent the world and the self; to organise social systems and practices in dynamic, variable, and changing ways;
• as cultural and intercultural practice – means by which communities construct and express their experience, values, beliefs and aspirations;
• as cognitive process – means by which ideas are shaped, knowledge is constructed, and analysis and reflection are structured.

Language comprehension

A process of interpreting meaning from spoken, written, tactile and multimodal representations of language.

Language features

Features of language that support meaning; for example, sentence structure, noun group/phrase, vocabulary, punctuation, figurative language. Choices in language features and text structures together define a type of text and shape its meaning. These choices vary according to the purpose of a text, its subject matter, audience and mode or medium of production.

Language functions

Varied ways in which language is used to achieve particular purposes; for example, to persuade, to entertain, to apologise, to argue and/or to compliment.

Language patterns

Identifiable repeated or corresponding elements in a text. These include patterns of repetition or similarity, such as the repetition of imperative verb forms at the beginning of each step in a recipe, or the repetition of a chorus after each verse in a song. Patterns may alternate, as in the call and response pattern of some games, or the to-and-fro of a dialogue. Patterns may also contrast, as in opposing viewpoints in a discussion or contrasting patterns of imagery in a poem.

Language specificity

Distinguishing features of a particular language. These include lexico-grammatical and textual features, writing system(s), phonetic systems, and cultural elements which influence language use such as:

• politeness or kinship protocols;
• the nature of language communities which use the language;
• the historical and/or current relationship of a language with education in Australia;
• features of its ‘learnability’ in terms of teaching and learning in the context of Australian schooling.

Language systems

Elements that organise how a language works, including the systems of signs and rules (phonological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic) that underpin language use. These systems have to be internalised for effective communication and comprehension.

Learning trajectory

A conceptualised developmental sequence of learning, including learning goals, learning activities, knowledge and skills to be developed at progressive levels.

Level statements

Descriptions in broad terms of the developmental characteristics of students and their language learning at particular phases along the Foundation–Year 12 continuum.

Lexical cohesion

A use of word associations to create links in texts. Links can be made through the use of repetition of words, synonyms, antonyms and words that are related, such as by class and subclass.

Literacy resources

Individual resources and capabilities which learners bring to their learning experience; these include text knowledge, grammatical and vocabulary knowledge, knowledge of phonetic and writing systems. They also include critical, reflective and intercultural capabilities that support new literacy experience in a different language.

Macro skills

Four major language skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing.

Media texts

Spoken, print, graphic, or electronic communications created for a public audience. They often involve numerous people in their construction and are usually shaped by the technology used in their production. Media texts studied in different languages can be found in newspapers, magazines and on television, film, radio, computer software and the internet.

Mediate

To move between different linguistic and cultural systems, referencing own first language(s)/culture(s) while learning to use and to understand those of the target language. This movement involves:

• noticing, interpreting, responding sensitively and flexibly;
• conveying culturally-shaped ideas, values, experience to others;
• exploring how ideas and experiences are represented and conveyed in different languages and cultures;
• considering similarities, overlaps, collisions and adjustments;
• developing the capacity to communicate and represent different perspectives and interpretations.

Mediating operates in two distinctive ways:

• in practices such as interpreting and translating, with attention to what can happen in these processes in terms of ‘losing’ or ‘gaining’ meaning;
• as the element of the learning experience, which involves noticing, responding, comparing and explaining differences in expression and perspective.

Medium

Resources used in the production and transmission of texts, including tools and materials used (for example, digital text and the computer, writing and the pen or the keyboard).

Metalanguage

A vocabulary used to discuss language conventions and use ( for example, language used to talk about grammatical terms such as sentence, clause, conjunction; or about the social and cultural nature of language, such as face, reciprocating, register.)

Mnemonic

Memorising information by use of an aid such as a pattern, rhyme, acronym, visual image.

Modal verb

A verb attached to another verb to express a degree of probability (for example, I might come home) or a degree of obligation (for example, You must give it to me,You are to leave now).

Mode

Various processes of communication: listening, speaking, reading/viewing, signing and writing/creating. Modes are also used to refer to the semiotic (meaning making) resources associated with these communicative processes, such as sound, print, image and gesture.

Morpheme

The smallest meaningful unit in the grammar of a language. Morphemes are not necessarily the same as either words or syllables. The word cat has one morpheme while the word cats has two morphemes: cat for the animal and s to indicate that there is more than one. Similarly, like has one morpheme while dislike has two: like to describe appreciation and dis to indicate the opposite. The process of identifying morphemes assists comprehension, vocabulary building and spelling.

Morphology

Principles of word formation and inflection, especially with respect to constituent morphemes.

Multimodal text

A text which involves two or more communication modes; for example, the combining of print, image and spoken text in film or computer presentations.

Narrative

A story of events or experiences, real or imagined.

Narrative devices

Techniques used to help in the narrating of a story or reported event. For example, imagery, metaphor, allusion.

Neologism

A new word is created, for example, Smartphone, modem, AIDS or an existing word is used in a new way, for example, deadly.

Noun

A part of speech that includes all words denoting physical objects such as man, woman, boy, girl, car,window. These are concrete nouns. Abstract nouns express intangibles, such as democracy, courage,success, idea.

Oracy

An ability to express oneself in and to understand spoken language; it includes oral and aural proficiency.

Orthography

Writing words with correct letters or characters according to common usage.

Paralanguage

Additional elements of spoken communication which are integrated with vocal (voice) and verbal (words) elements, and contribute significantly to communication and meaning-making. For example, voice quality, volume and pacing, facial expressions, gestures, posture and body movement.

Paralinguistics

A study of paralanguage elements of expression.

Pedagogy

A combination of conceptual knowledge, practical skills and reflective capabilities which constitute the ‘art and science’ of teaching.

Performance

A use of the language in real situations, putting language knowledge into practice; it involves accuracy, fluency and complexity.

Phoneme

The smallest meaningful unit in the sound system of a language. For example, the word is has two phonemes: /i/ and /s/; ship has three phonemes: /sh/, /i/, /p/. A phoneme usually has several manifestations dependent on varying phonological contexts. For example, the p in pin and spin differs slightly in pronunciation but is regarded as being the same phoneme; that is, as having the same functional meaning within each word.

Phonics

A relationship between letters or characters and the sounds they make when pronounced. L2 learning involves developing phonic awareness and proficiency.

Phonological awareness

Understanding that every spoken word is composed of small units of sound, identifying relationships between letters and sounds when listening, reading and spelling. It includes understandings about words, rhyme and syllables.

Pragmatics

A study of how context affects communication; for example, in relation to the status of participants, the situation in which the communication is happening, or the intention of the speaker.

Prediction

An informed presumption about something that might happen. Predicting at text level can include working out what a text might contain by looking at the cover, or working out what might happen next in a narrative. Predicting at sentence level includes identifying what word is likely to come next in a sentence.

Prefix

A meaningful element (morpheme) added before the main part of a word to change its meaning. For example, unhappy.

Preposition

A part of speech that precede a noun, noun phrase phrase or pronoun, thereby describing relationships in a sentence in respect to:

• space/direction (below, in, on, to, under ‒ for example, she sat on the table);
• time (after, before, since ‒ for example, Í will go to the beach after lunch);
• those that do not relate to space or time (of, besides, except, despite ‒ for example, he ate all the beans except the purple ones).

Prepositions usually combine with a noun group or phrase to form a prepositional phrase. For example, in the office, besides these two articles.

Productive language use

One of the two aspects of communication through language (see receptive language) involving the ability to express, articulate and produce utterances or texts in the target language.

Pronoun

A part of speech that refers to nouns, or substituting for them, within and across sentences. For example, Ahmad chose a chocolate cake. He ate it that evening (where he and it are personal pronouns; and that is a demonstrative pronoun).

Pronunciation

A manner in which a syllable is uttered.

Prosody

Patterns of rhythm, tempo, stress, pitch and intonation used in language; for example, in poetry or public speaking.

Proxemics

A use of space, posture and touch as elements of non-verbal communication.

Purposeful learning

Learning which results from authentic language experiences that involve real purpose and achievable outcomes.

Question

A commonly employed prompt to elicit language use. A key element of scaffolding to support learners’ use of language and to encourage further contributions. Different types of questions provide different prompts:

• closed questions are questions for which there are predictable answers. For example, What time is it? These are typically used as prompts for short answers, as a framework for testing comprehension or reviewing facts, and for routinized interactions. They are frequently used to scaffold early language development;
• open questions are questions with unknown and unpredictable answers that invite and support more elaborated and extended contributions from learners. For example, How do you feel about that?What do you think might happen next? They are used as stimulus to discussion, reflection and investigation.

Questions are an important element of intercultural language teaching and learning. The quality of questions determines the quality and substance of the learning experience. Effective questions relating to the nature of language, culture and identity and the processes involved in language learning and intercultural experience guide the processes of investigating, interpreting and reflecting which support new understanding and knowledge development.

Read

Process visual or tactile symbols (for example, braille), words or actions in order to derive and/or construct meaning. Reading includes elements of decoding (of sounds and symbols), interpreting, critically analysing and reflecting upon meaning in a wide range of written, visual, print and non-print texts.

Receptive language

One of the two components of communication through language (see productive language): the ‘receiving’ aspect of language input, the gathering of information and making of meaning via listening, reading, viewing processes.

Reciprocating

An integrating element of intercultural communication that involves movement and relationship, interpreting and creating meaning, and understanding the process of doing so. It involves not only the exchange of words but also an exchange of understanding between the people involved. It comes into play when the learner ‘self’ encounters and interacts with the ‘other’ (the target language speaker, the target language itself as text or experience); when the existing language code and cultural frame encounters a different code and frame. This experience impacts on the learner’s perspective and sense of identity and on their usual ways of communicating. Reciprocating involves conscious attention to the process: attention to the self (intraculturality) and to the likely impact of the self on the other person involved (interculturality). Things previously taken for granted are noticed in reference to new or different ways. Key elements of reciprocating include conscious attention, comparison, reflection and analysis:

• recognition that both partners in an exchange are involved in the ‘effort of meaning’;
• willingness to work out what the other person means, the cultural and social context they are speaking from and the perspectives, which frame what they are saying;
• making necessary adjustments to own and each other’s input, orientation and stance that will help the exchange to be successful.

Register

A variety of language used for a particular purpose or in a particular situation, the variation being defined by use as well as user. For example, informal register or academic register.

Romanisation

A transcription from a differently scripted language, such as Chinese or Japanese, into the Latin alphabet.

Root of a word

A word/word element that cannot be reduced to a smaller unit and from which other words are formed. For example, plant in replanting.

Scaffolding

Support provided to assist the learning process or to complete a learning task. Scaffolded language support involves using the target language at a level slightly beyond learners’ current level of performance, and involves incremental increasing and decreasing of assistance. Task support provides assistance to perform just beyond what learners can currently do unassisted, to progress to being able to do it independently. Scaffolding includes modelling and structuring input in ways that provide additional cues or interactive questioning to activate existing knowledge, probe existing conceptions or cue noticing and reflecting.

Scanning

A text processing strategy adopted to search for specific words, ideas or information in a text without reading every word. For example, looking for a word in the dictionary or a name in a phone directory. Scanning involves moving the eyes quickly down the text looking for specific words and phrases to gain a quick overall impression/to get the gist.

Script

A writing system in which characters or symbols represent components of language (letters, syllables, words).

Semantic knowledge

Knowledge gained at a meaning rather than a decoding level. This involves understanding the relationship between signifiers (words, phrases, symbols, signs) and the meanings they represent. Semantic information is supported through reference to prior knowledge, cultural connotations and contextual considerations.

Skimming

A text processing strategy aimed at gaining information quickly without focusing on every word.

Speak

Convey meaning and communicate with purpose. Some students participate in speaking activities using communication systems and assistive technologies to communicate wants, and needs, and to comment about the world

Stereotype

A widely held but fixed and oversimplified image or idea of a particular type of person or thing

Stress

An emphasis in pronunciation that is placed on a particular syllable of a word; for example, she will conduct the orchestra; her conduct is exemplary.

Suffix

A meaningful element added after the root of a word to change its meaning (for example, to show its tense : –ed in passed. Common suffixes in English include –ing; –ed; ness; –less; –able).

Synchronous

Occurring or existing at the same time.

Syntax

An ordering of sentence elements such as words, group/phrases and clauses. In some education settings, the terms syntax and grammar are used interchangeably.

Talk

Convey meaning and communicate with purpose. Some students participate in speaking activities using communication systems and assistive technologies to communicate wants, and needs, and to comment about the world

Task

An integrated experience and use of language, set in a context, accomplishing a purpose, focused on meaning. A task provides an organising structure and context for meaning-focused language learning. Unlike form-focused language activities and exercises, task-based learning involves the achievement of a goal or authentic outcome. Learners draw from existing language resources and seek out unfamiliar resources as needed to complete the task. Scaffolding is provided by the teacher via the task cycle, which includes form-focused teaching. Examples of tasks: researching an issue, sharing ideas and then categorising and presenting results; planning and having a picnic; designing and publishing an online newsletter.

Task-based language learning (TBLL)

An orientation to language teaching and learning, which focuses on the use of the language in meaningful and ‘life-like’ tasks and activities. The completion of the task is not an end in itself, as tasks are part of the overall learning and using of the language, providing a context and purpose for developing language competence and a means of assessing and evaluating learning outcomes. Learners work independently and/or collaboratively, draw on existing language resources, generate solutions to communicative problems, seek out additional or new language and other resources needed to complete the task. Focused language work, such as grammar knowledge, vocabulary building, social and cultural competence, is integrated with task preparation and completion processes. Tasks provide opportunities to integrate the four modes of language use, to develop fluency, complexity and problem-solving capacity, as well as including work on accuracy and focus on form. A task has limits as a one-off learning event, but is used as a meaningful component of learners’ overall learning progression.

Text

An identified stretch of language, used as a means for communication or the focus of learning and investigation. Text forms and conventions have developed to support communication with a variety of audiences for a range of purposes. Texts can be written, spoken or multimodal and in print or digital/online forms. Multimodal texts combine language with other systems for communication, such as print text, visual images, soundtrack and spoken word, as in film or computer presentation media.

Text processing strategies

Strategies learners use to decode and understand text. These involve drawing on contextual, semantic, grammatical and phonic knowledge in systematic ways to work out what a text says. They include predicting, recognising words and working out unknown words, monitoring comprehension, identifying and correcting errors, reading on and re-reading.

Text structure

Ways in which information is organised in different types of texts (for example, chapter headings, subheadings, tables of contents, indexes and glossaries, overviews, introductory and concluding paragraphs, sequencing, topic sentences, taxonomies, cause and effect). Choices in text structures and language features together define a text type and shape its meaning. Different languages/cultures structure texts differently in many instances.

Text types (genres)

Categories of text, classified according to the particular purposes they are designed to achieve, which influence the features the texts employ. For example, texts may be imaginative, informative or persuasive; or can belong to more than one category. Text types vary significantly in terms of structure and language features across different languages and cultural contexts. For example, a business letter in French will be more elaborated than a similar text in English; a request or an offer of hospitality will be differently expressed in Japanese or German.

Textual features/conventions

Structural components and elements that combine to construct meaning and achieve purpose, and are recognisable as characterising particular text types (see language features).

Tone

A use of pitch and contour in spoken language to nuance words and, in some languages, to distinguish lexical or grammatical meaning. In Chinese, for example, the tones are distinguished by their pitch range (register), duration and contour (shape). All Chinese syllables have a set tone, which distinguishes it and its meaning from another syllable. However, in certain environments tones can change or be modified, while in rapid spoken Chinese a great many unstressed syllables carry no tone at all.

Translation

A process of translating words/text from one language into another, recognising that the process involves movement of meanings and attention to cultural context as well as the transposition of individual words.

Transliteration

Writing a letter or word using the closest corresponding letter or word from a different language or alphabet.

Verb

A part of speech which expresses existence, action, state or occurrence. For example, they watch football; she is exhausted; the day finally came.

auxiliary verb – a verb that combines with another verb in a verb phrase to form tense, mood, voice or condition. For example, they will go, I did eat lunch, she might fail the exam.

Word borrowing

A practice of incorporating words from one language into another. For example, the use of Italian words such as pianissimo, cannelloni in English and the use of English ICT terms in many languages. The increasing frequency of word-borrowing between languages reflects intercultural contact, contemporary cultural shifts and practices in a globalised world, issues of ease of communication and efficiency and technological specialisation.

Years 7 to 10

The nature of the learner, the pathway and particular language

Languages studied in the Second Language Learner Pathway (L2) are typically languages used in spoken form as the language of everyday communication by whole communities across all generations.

The second language learner pathway has been written on the assumption that learning will occur off-Country involving students who are typically not from the language community and have little or no experience of the language and culture. They are introduced to learning the language at school as an additional, new language.

The language chosen for curriculum development should have a sizeable set of resources in a variety of media, such as local documentaries, bilingual narrative and descriptive texts, and educational materials in print and digital form. Learning is enriched and authenticated by interaction with visiting Elders and community speakers, and where possible visits to Country/Place. Information and communications technologies provide additional resources to support a range of language and culture experiences.

The curriculum content and achievement standards in the Second Language Learner Pathway are generalised in order to cater for the range of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander languages that may be learnt as a second language. The content descriptions, content elaborations and achievement standards for the Second Language Learner pathway will need to be adapted for use with the particular language being taught and will need to be modified if the program occurs on-Country or if the learners are from the language community.

At this level, students bring a range of language learning strategies to their learning. They are increasingly aware of the world beyond their own and are engaging with issues of youth, society and environment. They are increasingly independent and capable of analysis and reflection. They are considering their future pathways and choices, including how the language could be part of these.

Language learning and use

Learners interact using the target language in classroom routines and communicative tasks. They give presentations and participate in conversations, with some preparation and support, such as cue cards. They use the language more fluently, with a greater degree of self-correction and revision. They acquire skills in analysing and translating increasingly complex texts.

Learners are extending the range and quality of their writing through increased vocabulary and grammar knowledge, and by drafting and editing their own work and that of their peers. They use models to create a range of texts, including descriptions, recounts and reflections.

They are increasingly aware of connections between language and culture, noticing, for example, different language use according to kin relationships. They are learning to reflect on their own language and culture, and how identity impacts on intercultural experiences.

Contexts of interaction

Learning occurs largely through interaction with peers and the teaching team. Students may have some access to visiting Elders and community speakers, and may use technology to communicate with peers in the target language region, such as through a sister-school partnership. Some students may have opportunities to visit the target language region themselves or to view touring performances and art displays.

Texts and resources

Learners engage with a range of visual, spoken, written and digital texts, such as photographs, maps, bush calendars, seasonal charts, posters, songs, raps, dances, stories, paintings and visual design, video clips, and films.

Level of support

Learners are increasingly aware of and responsible for their own learning. They continue to access and use resources such as word lists, modelled texts and dictionaries. Teacher feedback continues to support their receptive and productive language use.

Learners require explicit instruction in the grammatical system of the target language, supported by comparisons with English and other known languages. They also require opportunities to discuss, practise and use their knowledge. They monitor their learning progress, for example by keeping records of their learning, such as journals, folios or blogs, and use these resources to reflect on their language learning and intercultural experiences.

The role of languages

The target language is used for classroom interaction, language learning activities and experiences, and reflection on learning. English is used to support analysis, comparison and reflection; it is also the medium for expressing personal views at a level beyond learners’ range in the target language, such as justifying a position on a social issue or exploring and comparing linguistic and cultural practices and learning experiences.

Socialising

Engage with peers, the teaching team and visiting Elders/community speakers to share interests, experiences and aspirations, to exchange information about teenage life and to express opinions and feelings
[Key concepts: experience, aspiration; Key processes: recounting, exchanging, connecting]

Engage in activities that involve collaboration, planning, organising and negotiating to take action
[Key concepts: event, experience, collaboration; Key processes: planning, organising, negotiating]

Interact in class activities that involve making requests and suggestions, seeking clarification, negotiating changes and expressing opinions
[Key concepts: opinion, discussion, respect; Key processes: requesting, negotiating, expressing, comparing, deciding, explaining]

Informing

Identify, analyse and summarise factual information obtained from a range of sources on a variety of topics and issues related to the region of the target language
[Key concepts: Indigenous knowledge, social and environmental issues, lifestyles, community initiatives and projects, community life; Key processes: summarising, synthesising, referencing]

Convey information about events, experiences or topics of shared interest, using different modes of presentation to suit different audiences and contexts
[Key concepts: audience, Country/Place, community life; Key processes: describing, explaining, creating, annotating]

Creating

Interpret and respond to a range of real and imaginative texts by sharing personal views, comparing themes, describing and explaining aspects of artistic expression and how these relate to land, people, plants, animals and social and ecological relationships
[Key concepts: representation, imagination; Key processes: interpreting, explaining, describing, discussing; Key text types: songs, raps, dances, traditional and contemporary stories, paintings and visual design, video clips, films]

Create a range of spoken, written and multimodal texts to entertain others, involving real or imagined contexts and characters
[Key concepts: imagination, journey; Key processes: creating, collaborating, performing, composing; Key] text types: raps, songs, performances, story, cartoons, advertisements, digital texts, video clips, skits, paintings and visual designs]

Translating

Translate and interpret a range of texts from the target language to English and vice versa, comparing their versions and considering how to explain elements that involve cultural knowledge or understanding
[Key concepts: equivalence, representation, meaning, interpretation, idiom; Key processes: comparing, explaining, interpreting]

Create bilingual texts in collaboration with others for the wider community
[Key concept: interpretation, bilingualism; Key processes: designing, explaining, classifying, glossing, annotating, composing]

Identity

Consider and discuss their own and each other’s experiences and ways of expressing identity, reflecting on how the target language links the local, regional and national identity of its speakers with the land
[Key concepts: identity, perspective, biography; Key processes: sharing, comparing, considering, reflecting, analysing]

Reflecting

Participate in intercultural interactions and consider own reactions when engaging with target language speakers and resources, and how these may reflect own language(s) and culture(s)
[Key concepts: intercultural experience, perspective, insight, self-reflection, ways of knowing and being, reconciliation, discrimination; Key processes: comparing, analysing, explaining, reflecting, choosing]

Systems of language

Produce sounds, stress, intonation patterns of the target language, using a developing phonemic awareness linked to the writing system
[Key concepts; metalanguage, patterns, phonetic articulation, syllable; Key processes: identifying, reading, investigating]

Expand vocabulary and understand and use a range of grammatical structures in the target language, including inflectional and derivational processes
[Key concepts: system, grammatical case, affixation, voice, transitivity, particles, Key processes: explaining, constructing, compounding]

Investigate spoken, written and visual modes of communication and analyse the form and structures of different types of texts, including their use, function and relationship to social processes
[Key concepts: text structure, relationship; Key processes: analysing, investigating, linking, sequencing]

Investigate how connections between Law, story, ceremony, people and Country/Place are demonstrated and evident in community behaviour
[Key concepts: interconnectedness, human relationships, ownership, rights, responsibilities; Key processes: describing, explaining, investigating, exploring]

Language variation and change

Analyse variations in language use that reflect different social and cultural contexts, purposes and relationships
[Key concepts: respect, silence, kinship; Key processes: examining, explaining, analysing]

Understand that languages and cultures change continuously due to contact with one another and in response to new needs and ideas, popular culture, media and new technologies
[Key concepts: contact, change; Key processes: exploring, observing, reflecting]

Language awareness

Investigate and compare the ecologies of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages with Indigenous languages in other countries, and consider issues such as languages policy, language rights, language loss, advocacy, reform and multilingualism
[Key concepts: environment, boundaries, policy, revival; Key processes: researching, investigating, exploring, considering]

Understand and apply cultural norms, skills and protocols associated with learning, using and researching Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages
[Key concepts: ownership, ethical behaviour; Key processes: acknowledging, investigating, applying]

Role of language and culture

Reflect on how ways of using language are shaped by communities’ ways of thinking, behaving and viewing the world, and the role of language in passing on knowledge
[Key concepts: Indigenous knowledge, value transmission; Key processes: reflecting, exploring, analysing, comparing]

Role of language building

Investigate programs, initiatives and techniques that keep Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages strong
[Key concepts: language maintenance, development, building; Key processes: discussing, exploring, investigating, evaluating, language building, language engineering]

The achievement standards for the Framework for Aboriginal Languages and Torres Strait Islander Languages Second Language Learner Pathway are generalised in order to cater for the range of languages that may be learnt as an L2 in the school context. The achievement standards will need to be adapted for use for specific Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages.

By the end of Year 10, students use the target language to initiate, sustain and extend interactions and to express feelings and opinions. They share interests, experiences and aspirations and exchange information about teenage life. They use spontaneous language to participate in activities that involve taking action, collaborating, planning, organising and negotiating. They use culturally appropriate norms, skills and protocols when engaging with and learning from Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and communities. When interacting in the classroom, they make requests, make suggestions and seek clarification. They locate, analyse and summarise factual information from a range of sources on topics and issues related to the target language region. They demonstrate understanding of the target language region, community, culture, way of life and History by presenting information on social and environmental issues, past and present community initiatives, projects and lifestyles. Students listen to, view and share personal responses to a range of texts such as stories, songs, visual and creative arts, films and procedural texts. They demonstrate understanding by identifying and explaining main ideas, key themes, sequences of events, and by comparing the role and representation of animals, people and landscapes. They link and sequence ideas and use expressive language, gestures, artistic and iconographic elements and conventions to create spoken, written and multimodal texts that involve real or imagined contexts and characters. They apply culturally appropriate and ethical behaviour to translate and interpret a range of texts from the target language to English and vice versa, and explain culture-specific concepts, practices and expressions. They create bilingual texts to inform the wider community about aspects of the target language region and culture. Students share experiences and ways of expressing identity, and they reflect on how the target language links the local, regional and national identity of its speakers with the land. They describe how they feel and behave when interacting with target language speakers and resources, and they reflect on how their reactions may reflect their own languages, cultures and perspectives.

Students know the sounds, stress, intonation patterns, writing systems and grammatical elements of the target language and apply this knowledge to construct extended spoken, written and multimodal texts. They use metalanguage to explain sound, writing and grammatical systems, including inflectional and derivational processes. They analyse the form and structure of a range of spoken, written and visual texts and explain their function, form and relationship to social processes, such as declaring identity, acknowledging ancestors and traditional belief systems, and passing on knowledge and information. Students demonstrate their understanding of kinship as a system by explaining its importance in maintaining and regulating social relationships in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities and links with Country/Place. They explain how and why language use is adjusted to suit different social and cultural contexts, purposes and relationships. They explain the dynamic nature of language and cultures, and identify factors that influence change, such as contact with other languages or response to new ideas and technologies. Students make comparisons between the ecologies of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages and indigenous languages in other countries, in areas such as language policy and rights, language loss, advocacy and reform, and language revival. They identify the role of language in passing on knowledge, and explain how communities’ worldviews and ways of thinking and behaving shape how language is used. They identify factors that serve to maintain and strengthen language use, such as intergenerational collaboration and transmission, programs and initiatives, and explain challenges associated with such practices and initiatives.

Years 7 and 8

The nature of the learners

These years represent a transition to secondary school. Students in this sequence are continuing to study Arabic, bringing with them an established capability to interact in different situations, to engage with a variety of texts and to communicate about their immediate world and that of Arabic-speaking countries and communities overseas.

Arabic language learning and use

The focus of learning shifts from the world of learners’ own experience and imagination to the wider world. Learners make cross-curricular connections and explore intercultural perspectives and experiences relating to teenage life and interests. They engage in a range of interactions with others, expressing their feelings أتمنى أن نسافر إلى كوينزلاند في عطلة المدرسة, exchanging and clarifying their views ما رأيك؛ سامي أعطنا رأيك, describing and explaining their actions and responses تأخرت في الصباح لأنني إستيقضت متأخراَ , and negotiating and making arrangements أن ساعدتني في البحث؛ سنحصل على درجة عالية. They increasingly access information from local sources and the internet to explore perspectives and views on topics of interest to teenagers, such as leisure, entertainment and special occasions. Learners use different processing strategies and their knowledge of language, increasingly drawing on their understanding of text types, when conveying information in a range of texts. They produce personal, informative and persuasive texts, such as blogs, diary entries, emails, reports, articles and speeches, about their own social and cultural experiences at home, at school, and in Arabic-speaking communities in the Australian context. They examine a range of imaginative texts, such as Arabic legends, to analyse and give their opinions on themes, characters, events, messages and ideas الفيلم غير واقعي, and discuss and compare how elements of Arabic culture are represented. They use their imagination to create and perform songs, short plays and stories to entertain different audiences. They use vocabulary and grammar with increasing accuracy, drafting and editing to improve structure and clarify expression and meaning.

Contexts of interaction

Learners work both collaboratively and independently, exploring different modes and genres of communication with particular reference to their current social, cultural and communicative interests. They pool language knowledge and resources to plan, problem-solve, monitor and reflect. They use Arabic to interact with teachers, peers and local Arabic speakers, participating in authentic situations at home, at school and within the local community. The context of interactions extends beyond the home and classroom and involves participation in community events or celebrations. Additional opportunities for interaction are provided by purposeful and integrated use of information and communications technologies (ICT), for example, videoconferencing and e-learning.

Texts and resources

Learners read, view and interact with a broad range of texts and resources specifically designed for learning Arabic in school contexts, such as textbooks, readers, videos and online materials, including those developed for computer-supported collaborative learning. They also access authentic materials created for Arabic-speaking communities, such as films, literature, websites and magazines. They use a range of dictionaries and translation methods to support comprehension.

Features of Arabic language use

Learners use appropriate pronunciation, intonation, rhythm patterns and writing conventions to convey specific meaning in a range of texts. By building their vocabulary knowledge, learners are able to develop and express more complex concepts in Arabic. They use a range of grammatical forms and structures to convey relationships between people, places, events and ideas. They employ a variety of sentence structures, including grammatical elements such as adjective–noun agreement, dual forms of nouns and verbs, and irregular plural, imperative and auxiliary verbs to describe and compare people, actions and events, elaborate on ideas and opinions رياضة السباحة ممتعة ومفيدة خاصة هنا في أستراليا؛ بينما كرة القدم ليست مفيدة مع أنها شعبية and enrich their understanding and use of language. They make connections between texts and cultural contexts, identifying how cultural values and perspectives are embedded in language, and how Arabic speakers use particular language and gestures to convey their feelings about and attitudes towards other people and ideas.

Level of support

The class will likely comprise background learners with a range of prior experience in studying Arabic. Learners are supported through multilevel and differentiated tasks. Consolidation of prior learning is balanced with the provision of new, engaging and challenging experiences. As they develop increasing autonomy as language learners and users, learners are supported to self-monitor and reflect on language use in response to their experiences in diverse contexts.

The role of English

The classroom is increasingly characterised by bilinguality, with Arabic being the principal language of communication. English may be used separately or in conjunction with Arabic to express ideas, personal views and experiences relating to communicating in Arabic and English in different contexts of interaction. Learners continue to develop a metalanguage for thinking and communicating about language, culture and their sense of identity from a bilingual perspective, and about the importance of maintaining their Arabic cultural heritage.

The place of the Arabic culture and language in Australia and in the world

Arabic is spoken by approximately 280 million people in 22 countries over two continents. It is the official language of the Arab world, which includes countries of the Middle East, North Africa and the Gulf region, and is one of the official languages of the United Nations. The Arabic-speaking world has a long history, and the Arabic language has evolved and flourished over time, as evidenced by the richness of its literature. Arabic is comprised of a number of dialects that reflect the cultural diversity of Arabic-speaking countries, regions and communities.

Since the end of the nineteenth century, large communities of Arabic speakers have migrated to countries such as the United States, Europe and Australia. More than 370,000 Australians are of Arab descent, living predominantly in Sydney and Melbourne. Australia has strong relationships with countries in the Middle East, North Africa, the Gulf and the wider Arabic-speaking world through family ties, trade and education.

Arabic-speaking communities in Australia comprise diverse groups, differing in ancestral origins, religious backgrounds and histories. They hold a heritage that shares common linguistic and cultural traditions, and these are the ties that bind. Arabic language and culture represent an important part of the linguistic and cultural diversity of Australia. The Arabic-speaking community has made and continues to make a significant contribution to the development and enrichment of Australian society, in areas such as commerce, agriculture, industry, health, education, journalism, hospitality, tourism and international relations.

The place of the Arabic language in Australian education

The study of Arabic provides background students with the opportunity to connect with their family heritage and to communicate with speakers of Arabic in Australia and around the world. Following the early settlement of Arabic speakers in Australia, the teaching of Arabic was established for children of Arabic-speaking migrants in after-hours school settings. Since the 1980s, Arabic has been taught in primary and secondary schools and tertiary institutions across Australia as well as in after-hours schools run by community organisations. This reflected the growing Arabic-speaking community in Australia, as well as government policies of the time supporting multiculturalism. The demand for Arabic language education in Australia has increased due to the geopolitical importance of the Arabic-speaking world and greater awareness of business opportunities.

The nature of Arabic language learning

Arabic is a Semitic language, and shares linguistic and phonological similarities with other Semitic languages such as Syriac, Aramaic and Hebrew. Classical Arabic and its successor, Modern Standard Arabic, have been and continue to be the language of religious texts as well as the basis for a rich heritage of classical poetry and literary prose. Today, speakers of Arabic come from a variety of social, cultural and religious backgrounds. Their views, cultures and beliefs are manifested in the language they use formally and informally in every aspect of their private lives and public affairs. Language is an inseparable part of their identity and the way they view themselves and the world around them.

The Arabic language has two forms: Modern Standard Arabic ( اللغة العربية الفصحى ) and colloquial Arabic. Modern Standard Arabic is the official language taught worldwide and used in formal situations, such as at school and university and in mosques, churches and official media. Colloquial Arabic is used in everyday situations, such as at home and in the marketplace, the street, restaurants, cafés, and popular and social media. Modern Standard Arabic is common to all countries of the Arabic-speaking world, while colloquial Arabic varies according to geographical location. For example, two individuals from Iraq and Morocco speaking in dialects would not easily understand each other unless they injected elements of Modern Standard Arabic into the conversation.

Arabic is a scripted language and is written from right to left. There are 28 letters, which are all consonants with short and long vowels. These vowels are represented in the forms of letters and marks called diacritic symbols which identify how words and letters are pronounced. Arabic is a highly inflectional language, with words formed according to a root system. Various vowels, prefixes and suffixes are used with root letters to create the desired inflection of meaning.

The diversity of learners of Arabic

The Australian Curriculum: Languages – Arabic is pitched to background language learners, the dominant cohort of learners in the Australian context.

The background language learner pathway has been developed for students who have exposure to Arabic language and culture, and who may engage in active but predominantly receptive use of Arabic at home. The range of learners within the Arabic background language learner pathway is diverse, defined for the most part by different waves of migration, and their use of Arabic may extend beyond the home to everyday interactions with Arabic-speaking friends and involvement in community organisations and events. Other learners may have been born in an Arabic-speaking country, where they may have completed some education.

A key dimension of the Australian Curriculum: Languages – Arabic involves understanding the interrelationship between language and culture. The curriculum is designed with an intercultural language learning orientation to enable students to participate meaningfully in language and cultural experiences, to develop new ways of seeing and being in the world from a bilingual perspective, and to understand more about themselves in the process.

Socialising

Initiate and sustain interactions with others by expressing and exchanging opinions on topics of interest, and maintain relationships through apologising, inviting or praising
[Key concepts: experiences, attitudes, etiquette, respect; Key processes: speaking, writing, expressing, inviting, accepting and declining, explaining]

Take action in collaborative tasks, activities and experiences that involve negotiation, making arrangements, problem-solving and shared transactions
[Key concepts: negotiation, expressing preference, collaboration; Key processes: planning, discussing, agreeing/disagreeing, making decisions]

Engage in classroom interactions and exchanges, clarifying meaning, and describing and explaining actions and responses
[Key concepts: opinion, perspective, mindful learning, exchange; Key processes: describing, explaining, clarifying, expressing]

Informing

Locate, interpret and compare information and ideas from a variety of texts relating to topics of interest such as leisure, entertainment and special occasions
[Key concepts: representation, community; Key processes: identifying, classifying, comparing, summarising, relating, understanding]

Present information to describe, compare and report on ideas and experiences in print, digital and multimodal formats selected to suit audience and purpose
[Key concepts: representation, experience, audience; Key processes: describing, summarising, comparing, reporting]

Creating

Compare ways in which people, places and experiences are represented in different imaginative texts, analysing ideas, themes and messages and contrasting them with own experiences
[Key concepts: representation, morality, context; Key processes: analysing, comparing, contextualising, explaining]

Create and present imaginative texts, including multimodal and digital texts, such as songs, poems, plays, stories or video clips, involving fictional characters, events and contexts, to entertain different audiences
[Key concepts: imagination, emotion, context, audience; Key processes: composing, performing, building context and character, entertaining]

Translating

Translate and interpret texts from Arabic into English and vice versa, compare own translations with others’, discuss differences and possible reasons and alternatives, and make language choices that best convey equivalent meaning
[Key concepts: meaning, equivalence, choice; Key processes: interpreting, comparing, refining]

Create bilingual texts on particular themes or events in different modes, including multimodal and digital modes, such as menus, brochures, cartoons or video clips, explaining culture-specific words and expressions, for example, by using captions and descriptions
[Key concepts: language, culture, meaning; Key processes: selecting, relating interculturally, designing]

Reflecting

Reflect on cultural differences between Arabic and English communicative styles, and discuss how and why they modify language for different cultural perspectives
[Key concepts: communication, cultural perspectives; Key processes: reflecting, discussing, connecting]

Reflect on how and why being a speaker of Arabic contributes to their sense of identity and is an important part of their Arabic cultural heritage
[Key concepts: cultural heritage, identity; Key processes: reflecting, explaining]

Systems of language

Understand and apply rules of intonation and pronunciation in spoken texts, and apply writing conventions with increased accuracy in written texts
[Key concepts: writing conventions, pronunciation, sounds; Key processes: selecting, speaking, writing]

Understand and use grammatical forms and structures, such as adjective–noun agreement, adverbial phrases (time, place and manner), and irregular plural, imperative and auxiliary verbs, to expand on spoken and written ideas
[Key concepts: grammar, accuracy; Key processes: elaborating, speaking, writing]

Expand understanding of how the structure and language features of personal, informative and imaginative Arabic texts suit diverse audiences, contexts and purposes
[Key concept: textual conventions; Key processes: comparing, examining]

Language variation and change

Explain how elements of communication and choice of language and register vary according to the cultural context and situation
[Key concepts: body language, expression, negotiation, choice; Key processes: reflecting, selecting, connecting]

Explore and reflect on the impact of social, cultural and intercultural changes such as globalisation and new technologies on the use of Arabic in different contexts
[Key concepts: globalisation, technology, dynamic systems; Key processes: researching, explaining, reflecting]

Role of language and culture

Understand and reflect on language choices made in everyday communication in order to express ideas and perspectives that relate to cultural elements
[Key concepts: cultural expression, representation; Key processes: analysing, selecting, reflecting]

By the end of Year 8, students use written and spoken Arabic to initiate and sustain classroom interactions with others, to exchange views, for example, السباحة رياضة ممتعة؛ أعتقد أن السفر مفيد جدا , and express feelings such as أشعر بالفرح؛ بالسعادة عندما ألعب رياضت المفضلة؛ عندما أعزف الموسيقى . They use language conventions, such as الترقيم/الوقف والإملاء والقواعد ال التعريف؛ الفواصل والنقط في نهاية الجمل, vocabulary and sentence structures to apologise (for example, أنا آسف؛ أعتذر عن…, invite (for example, أدعوك لحفل عيد ميلادي…؛ أرجو أن تحضر …, and offer praise, for example, رأيي أن …؛ أعتقد أن… . They clarify meaning, explain actions and responses, and complete transactions by negotiating, making arrangements and solving problems, for example, ماذا لو أكملنا البحث مع؟؛ هل تريد أن أساعدك؟ , سوف أتصل بك بعد المدرسة؛ أراك غدا صباحا؛ سوف أرسل البحث بالإيميل . They apply pronunciation and rhythm patterns in spoken Arabic to a range of sentence types. They locate, interpret and compare information and ideas on topics of interest from a range of written, spoken and multimodal texts, and convey information and ideas in a range of formats selected to suit audience and purpose. They express opinions on the ways in which characters and events are represented in imaginative texts, and explain ideas, themes and messages, for example, في القصة؛ هيام أذكى من عبير ؛ في النص الأول… بينما في النص الثاني … . Students create texts with imagined places, events, people and experiences in a range of forms to entertain different audiences. They use grammatical forms and features such as adjective–noun agreement for example, الشاب الوسيم/الشابة الجميلة, adverbial phrases to indicate time, place and manner for example, في الصباح الباكر؛ في منتصف الطريق, and irregular, plural, imperative and auxiliary verbs for example, كان وأخواتها ,فعل الأمر جمع التكسير, to elaborate their oral and written communication. They translate texts from Arabic into English and vice versa, and compare own translations with others’, explaining differences and possible reasons and alternatives. They make language choices that best reflect meaning to create bilingual texts, identifying and using words and expressions that carry specific cultural meaning. Students explain how and why they adjust their language use according to different cultural contexts, and how being a speaker of Arabic contributes to their own sense of identity.

Students apply their knowledge of writing conventions, such as punctuation, to convey specific meaning in a range of texts, for example, الفواصل وعلامات الإستفهام والاستنكار والتعجب والجمل المبطنة . They analyse the structure and linguistic features of a range of personal, informative and imaginative texts and explain how these features are influenced by the context, audience and purpose. Students explain how and why changes to social settings affect verbal and non-verbal forms of communication. They explain the impact of social, cultural and intercultural changes such as globalisation and new technologies on the use of Arabic in different contexts. They explain how language choices they make reflect cultural ideas, assumptions and perspectives, for example, العبارات الشعبية؛ مصطلحات ذات دلائل دينية؛ العناوين الذكورية مثل رئيس للمذكر والمؤنث.

Years 7 and 8

The nature of the learners

These years represent a transition to secondary school and students in this pathway are continuing to study Chinese bringing with them a capability to communicate, with some assistance, about their immediate world and China.

Chinese language learning and use

The systems of writing and speaking in Chinese are distinct. Because of the role of character learning and its impact on reading and writing, learners can accomplish a higher active use of spoken language than written language. As a result, engagement with Chinese language is primarily through speaking and listening. Students use Chinese for self-expression, to access new information and to share their knowledge and experiences with others. Pinyin remains an important tool for learning the sound of new words, associating sounds with characters, and creating digital texts in characters.

Contexts of interaction

Students actively use Chinese in a range of everyday contexts for purposes such as socialising with peers, transacting and getting things done, sharing information and engaging in performance with a range of known participants, including native speakers and peers.

Texts and resources

Students explore a range of written texts, developing strategies to interpret meaning where not all characters are known. They read, respond to and create digital texts, including blogs, biographies and opinion pieces, using a variety of technologies and software.

Features of Chinese language use

Chinese is the language of instruction and interaction, and is used in more elaborate ways as students extend their knowledge of the grammatical system and its use through spoken and written communication. Students experiment with language, exploring how cultural meanings are expressed. They analyse how messages are conveyed across languages, and apply their skills in mediating between Chinese and English in different contexts and situations. Classroom discussions focus on exploring and extending their range of contexts and audiences as they develop their personal communication skills.

Level of support

Students are supported to develop increasing autonomy as language learners and users, to self-monitor, and to adjust language in response to their experience in diverse contexts.

The role of English

English is used as appropriate to allow for explanation and discussion on issues associated with analysis of language, reflection on experiences, and comparisons across languages and cultures.

The place of the Chinese language and culture in Australia and the world

China’s official language is Modern Standard Chinese, or Putonghua (the common or shared language) in Chinese. The language is also referred to as Hanyu, the spoken language of the Han people, or Zhongwen, the written language of China. In Taiwan it is more usually called Huayu (Hwayu), the spoken language of people of Chinese ethnicity. This term is also used in Singapore.

A number of dialects remain in active use. In addition, the character system has undergone significant evolution, standardisation and simplification over time. In recent times, the need to create Chinese language texts in digital format has resulted in an international effort to standardise character forms and attribute a Unicode to each form so that computer operating systems internationally can generate and reproduce Chinese texts in both simplified and traditional/full-form characters. It is not common for new characters to be created. In contemporary overseas Chinese media, texts are commonly in either simplified or traditional/full-form characters, reflecting the diverse histories and preferences of these communities.

Communities of Chinese speakers are characterised by linguistic, cultural and geographic diversity and can be found in almost every country of the world. Many of these communities have a long tradition, and they are particularly strong on the Pacific coast of Canada and the USA, and in South-East Asia, Australia and some European countries. The history of the Chinese community in Australia extends back to the mid-1800s, and patterns of migration in recent decades have seen rapid growth in Australia’s Chinese population.

Current links between Australia and China are characterised by bilateral relationships in trade and investment, as well as educational exchanges, and research and development in science and technology. The movement of people and ideas, as well as economic, cultural and educational exchange, adds to the richness and complexity of this relationship.

The place of the Chinese language in Australian education

Chinese has been taught in Australian schools since the 1950s, and experienced rapid growth in the 1980s as China undertook a policy of open-door and economic reform. Chinese has always been taught as an additional language in Australia, but schools are now catering to increasingly varied cohorts of Chinese language learners, including overseas-born Chinese speakers. The population of Chinese teachers has also changed, with growing numbers of teachers from the People’s Republic of China now teaching in Australian schools.

Chinese is recognised as an important language for young Australians to learn as Australia progresses towards a future of increased trade and engagement with Asia.

The nature of Chinese language learning

For the purposes of the Australian Curriculum: Languages, ‘Chinese’ refers to Modern Standard Chinese, Pinyin Romanisation and simplified characters. Given the ongoing use of both forms of Chinese characters (simplified and full form) in the media, in education and in environmental print (advertisements and shop signs), some knowledge or awareness of both systems is an advantage, for Chinese speakers and Chinese learners alike. Although both writing systems and the range of dialects should be recognised in any Chinese language curriculum, the priority in education is Modern Standard Chinese and simplified characters as the internationally recognised ‘official form’ of Chinese.

English and Chinese have very different grammatical and vocabulary systems. The Chinese spoken language is characterised by a high number of homophones — tone-syllables that are used to represent more than one morpheme — each of which has its own particular character. The range of syllables in Chinese, while limited in comparison to English, does include some sounds unfamiliar to English speakers. The task of learning Chinese can be best addressed by a clear separation between learning to interact orally, supported by print materials in Pinyin, and learning to read and write, supported by texts and resources in characters.

Chinese characters are logographs composed of a number of components organised into a particular sequence within a square, parts of which are likely to suggest the sound and meaning of the whole character. Each character is a morpheme-syllable — it represents a syllable of sound and a unit of meaning. There are 3500 frequently used characters which are learnt by children in primary school in China. These characters are composed of approximately 500 distinct components which are used with varying degrees of frequency, and in different locations and for different functions. Literacy development (in terms of learning to read and write, and especially to map known oral vocabulary onto the appropriate written forms) is a time-consuming and challenging task. Additional characteristics of Chinese writing are that texts in Chinese characters do not display word-level spacing and texts may be written vertically and read from right to left down the page.

The Chinese spoken language is composed of approximately 400 syllables which may be used with one of four tones to create a total of approximately 1200 tone-syllables. Different systems have been developed to reproduce the sounds of the Chinese language using the Roman alphabet to assist learners who are already familiar with the Roman alphabet. Today the Pinyin system has international recognition as the principal means of representing the sounds of Chinese in alphabetic form. This system assists students of many language backgrounds to learn the correct sounds of Putonghua, and is an efficient means of text input when creating texts in characters using digital media. It is important to note that Pinyin is not recognised as a valid alternative to written expression in characters, as its readability is limited.

The diversity of learners of Chinese

Three pathways have been developed for Chinese, to cater to the three main cohorts of learners of Chinese in Australian schools. The Second Language Learner Pathway caters for students learning Chinese as a second or additional language. The Background Language Learner Pathway has been developed for students who have exposure to Chinese language and culture, and who may engage in some active but predominantly receptive use of Chinese at home. The First Language Learner Pathway caters for students who have had their primary socialisation as well as initial literacy development and primary schooling in Chinese, and who use Chinese at home. Schools will make decisions about which pathway best serves their students’ needs, and teachers will use the pathways to cater for all learners by making any appropriate adjustments to differentiate learning experiences for their students.

Socialising

Initiate and sustain interactions with peers and familiar adults to plan and arrange activities or social events in the context of the school or local community, and vary spoken language in response to the needs and demands of other participants
[Key concepts: event, celebration, experience; Key processes: transacting, negotiating, suggesting, requesting, explaining]

Correspond with peers and other familiar participants to plan activities, and compare opinions on and attitudes towards different cultures
[Key concepts: relationship, experience, community; Key processes: sharing perspectives, exchanging, corresponding]

Informing

Analyse and summarise relevant information obtained from a range of spoken sources and convey this information to known audiences through a range of texts
[Key concepts: fact/fiction, representation, perspective, choice; Key processes: summarising, identifying, comparing, sequencing]

Locate, classify and organise relevant information, including analysing data in simple diagrams, tables and graphs, and re-present this information for known audiences
[Key concepts: lifestyle, change, trends, place; Key processes: summarising, comparing, contrasting]

Creating

Engage with imaginative texts, observing how characters, emotions and attitudes are portrayed, express opinions about these aspects of an imagined experience and apply this knowledge in their own performances and texts
[Key concept: emotion; Key processes: expressing, responding, performing]

Create written imaginative texts to describe experiences involving imagined people and places
[Key concepts: imagination, creativity, emotion, love, hate; Key processes: expressing, responding]

Translating

Translate texts for different audiences varying the language to explain key points for these different audiences
[Key concepts: equivalence, meaning; Key processes: translating, experimenting, comparing]

Create short bilingual texts on topics of personal interest and on key content from other learning areas and provide subtitles or commentary to assist meaning
[Key concepts: bilingualism, identity; Key processes: translating, interpreting]

Reflecting

Reflect on the cultural significance of how different groups and members of groups name themselves and are represented by others
[Key concepts: identity, group, name; Key processes: describing, considering, reflecting, developing]

Systems of language

Examine differences in sounds and tones, and patterns of sound flow in speech.

Interpret texts by inferring meaning from common character components or position of components, and analyse how reliable this method is in translating.

Identify and apply features of Chinese grammar and sentence structure to organise and sequence ideas in oral and written texts.

Analyse how authors adjust features of different text types for different purposes and audiences.

Language variation and change

Investigate the extent and dynamic nature of Chinese language use locally and globally.

Explain how the Chinese language adapts to social and technological changes.

The role of language and culture

Compare and reflect on how cultural contexts influence the way language is used within and across communities.

By the end of Year 8, students use spoken and written Chinese to sustain interactions in a range of social and personal contexts. They exchange ideas and opinions, for example, 你要去看电影吗？；我们可以六月份一起去. They summarise the main points of information about known content from a range of spoken and print sources (for example, 电视节目，podcast, 电话留言，广告， 老师推荐的网站，书籍，图书馆目录，游记), and convey the relevant information in a range of texts. Students respond to and create simple imaginative and informative texts. Sentences generally contain two or more ideas connected by cohesive devices (for example, 不但…而且…； 因为… 所以…), as well as time expressions (for example, 先…再…), and tense markers such as 了、完 to sequence events and ideas. Students make comparisons (for example, 比; 跟…一样), and provide explanations or reasons for opinions or decisions, using phrases that order and link their ideas. They use reported speech to refer to the ideas of others, for example, 他们认为. They speak with attention to pronunciation, tone and phrasing, using intonation and pitch to add emotion or emphasis to their message. They demonstrate intercultural understanding by varying their language use for different audiences and purposes.

Students describe the distinctive spoken and written language systems of Chinese using metalanguage. They know that character components can contribute to both sound and meaning of words and they understand how they can be combined to make different words, for example, 中国， 城， 中国城. They identify features of text types such as letters, emails, descriptions and narratives. Students identify how information is structured in Chinese texts, and understand the importance of cultural and contextual cues to correct interpretation of meaning. They explain how features of Chinese culture impact on communication practices, and reflect on their own interactions with Chinese-speaking people.

Years 7 and 8

The nature of the learners

These years represent a transition to secondary school. Students in this pathway are continuing to study French, bringing with them an established capability to interact in different situations, to engage with a variety of texts and to communicate with some assistance about their immediate world and that of France and other French-speaking communities. They have experience in analysing the major features of the language system and in reflecting on the nature of intercultural exchanges in which they are involved.

French language learning and use

French is used for classroom interactions and transactions, for explaining and practising language forms and for developing cultural understanding. Additional opportunities for interaction in the target language are provided by purposeful and integrated use of ICT. Learners work both collaboratively and independently, exploring different modes and genres of communication, with particular reference to their own current interests. They pool language knowledge and resources to plan, problem-solve, monitor and reflect. They use modelled and rehearsed language in familiar and unfamiliar contexts and increasingly generate original and personal language. They make cross-curricular connections and explore intercultural perspectives and experience.

Contexts of interaction

The primary context for learning remains the French language class; however, there may be increasing opportunities for interaction with peers in France and other French-speaking communities through technology, partner-school arrangements or community connections. Learners have access to additional French resources through websites, social media and radio streaming.

Features of French language use

Learners expand their range of vocabulary beyond their immediate world. They make clearer distinctions between sounds and intonation patterns. They develop more detailed grammatical knowledge, using additional tenses (le passé composé, le futur proche), some reflexive verb forms and additional irregular verbs. They become more familiar with features of different types of text (for example, informative, transactional, expressive), using this understanding to guide their own text production. They create and present more varied texts (such as poems, web pages and brochures), plan events and join in competitions and debates. They use French with increasing accuracy and fluency, drafting and editing texts to improve structure and effect. They make connections more confidently between texts and cultural contexts.

Texts and resources

Learners work with a range of texts specifically designed for learning French in schools, such as textbooks, videos, readers and online resources. They also access materials created for French-speaking communities, such as films (with subtitles), websites, advertisements and magazines. Authentic French-community resources provide access to additional cultural expression and experience.

Level of support

This is a period of review and consolidation and of engaging with new and challenging learning experiences. Continued scaffolding, modelling and material support are required to manage this transitional phase. Learners require modelled language use, particularly at the paragraph and whole text level for written language and for developing fluency and accuracy in spoken French. Focused attention on grammatical and textual features supports learners’ development as text producers. Learners are encouraged to become more autonomous, to self-monitor and to reflect on their learning.

The role of English

French is increasingly used at this level for classroom interactions and routines, for task participation and structured discussions. English continues to be used for more complex elements of instruction, and more substantive discussion, analysis and reflection in relation to abstract concepts. Learners continue to develop a metalanguage for thinking and talking about language, culture, identity and the experience of learning and using French.

The place of the French language and culture in Australia and in the world

French is a major world language, spoken as the first language in more than two dozen countries on five continents and as an official language in 33 countries. First language speakers include the 67 million inhabitants of mainland France; those living in the territorial communities of New Caledonia, French Polynesia, and the Wallis and Futuna Islands, as well as in French overseas departments such as French Guiana, Martinique, Guadeloupe and the island of Réunion; 80 percent of the inhabitants of Québec; and significant communities in Luxembourg, Belgium, Monaco, Switzerland and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. There are also many French-based creole languages, such as Haitian, developed through French colonial contact. French is a language of diplomacy, used by many international organisations, and is the dominant working language at the European Court of Justice. French culture has contributed to the shaping of global movements and traditions associated with domains such as the arts, cinema, philosophy and cultural theory, as well as fashion, design, food and wine.

Australia and the French-speaking world have significant shared history and strong contemporary connections. First French arrivals in the eighteenth century were explorers, followed by small numbers of prisoners, refugees and government officials who involved themselves in trade, commerce and agriculture. Migrants from maritime regions such as Aquitaine and Normandy arrived in the early nineteenth century, followed by French recruits to the Victorian gold rush (1852–71). Many stayed and settled as agriculturalists, winemakers, traders and tradesmen. By the beginning of the twentieth century there was an established French community in the colony, with its own chamber of commerce, French-language newspaper, major shipping interests and involvement in the growing wool trade. The ends of both world wars brought further migrants, including war brides of Australian servicemen, and people taking advantage of the government-assisted passage scheme at the close of World War II. The gaining of independence by French colonies in the 1950s and 1960s saw numbers of French families choosing to migrate to Australia rather than return to France. The past five decades have continued to see a steady movement of migrants between France and other French-speaking countries and territories and Australia, with approximately 0.5 percent of the Australian population identifying as having French ancestry.

Current links between Australia and the French-speaking world are strong, characterised by bilateral relationships in trade and investment, educational exchanges, research and development in science and technology, humanitarian and environmental initiatives, and communications, strategic and defence priorities. The Pacific region is a particularly important focus of bilateral engagement. France is a leading destination for Australian travellers, and a partner in work-exchange opportunities in hospitality, tourism and international relations. Large numbers of young Australians visit France and other French-speaking countries each year on student or working visas.

The place of the French language in Australian education

French has been taught in Australian schools and universities since the 1880s. Originally offered with Italian and German as a modern language option alongside classical languages, it was valued as an important academic and cultural discipline and a means of accessing the intellectual and cultural heritage of France. The move to communicatively based approaches to teaching in the 1970s, together with improved communications and travel opportunities, increased interest in French as an option for more learners. As Asian languages joined European languages in school programs, numbers of students learning French declined, but French continues to be studied at all levels across all states and territories and is currently the third most widely studied language in schools. Wider community interest in learning French is strong, as evidenced by enrolments in courses offered by regional branches of the Alliance Française and the proliferation of informal community-based French conversation groups and language clubs.

The nature of French language learning

French is an Indo-European language and belongs to the family of Romance languages derived from the spoken Latin language of the Roman Empire. It is closely related to English, due to the shared influence of Latin and to the fact that French was the official language of the English court, administration and culture for 300 years after the Norman Conquest in the eleventh century. This involvement with French contributed significantly to the developing English language. There are more than 1700 words that are used in both languages (for example, danger, saint, magazine, tact). In this sense French is already partly familiar to English-speaking learners. This familiarity supports early stages of learning.

French uses the same Roman alphabet as English, although its pronunciation of the letters differs significantly and the use of accents on some letters is an additional complexity for English-speaking learners. There are many similarities between the two grammatical systems, such as the same basic subject-verb-object order, but also differences, such as in the use of tenses, the gendering of nouns and adjectives, the marking of plural forms of nouns and adjectives, and the use of articles and capital letters. The sound system is usually the main challenge for English-speaking learners, including as it does some novel sounds (such as the pronunciation of the letters r and u), letters which are silent, and unfamiliar liaisons and intonation and rhythm patterns.

The diversity of learners of French

French programs in Australian schools are offered to a range of learners, including some who are following immersion or partial immersion programs. Many are monolingual English speakers who are learning French as their first experience of another language. A relatively small number have existing connections with French, either as background speakers, second- or third-generation French Australians, or through professional, personal or other forms of connection. For learners from language backgrounds with very different grammatical and vocabulary systems such as Chinese or Korean, learning French will represent similar challenges to those which frame their experience of learning English as their language of schooling; but these learners have the advantage of having developed skills and understandings associated with learning and using additional languages.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages for French is pitched to second language learners; that is, to the dominant cohort of learners in the current Australian context for whom French is an additional language. It has been developed according to two main learning trajectories for these learners, Foundation to Year 10 Sequence and Years 7–10 (Year 7 Entry) Sequence. Teachers will use the curriculum to cater for learners of different backgrounds by making appropriate adjustments to differentiate learning experiences for these students.

For students learning French for the first time in a school language program, a key dimension of the curriculum involves understanding the cultural dimension that shapes and is shaped by the language. The curriculum is designed with an intercultural language learning orientation to enable students to participate meaningfully in intercultural experiences, to develop new ways of seeing and being in the world, and to understand more about themselves in the process.

Socialising

Participate in a range of spoken and written interactions, for example, exchanging views or experiences, apologising or excusing, inviting or congratulating
[Key concepts: friendship, respect, communication; Key processes: responding, expressing, connecting]

Engage in tasks and activities that involve negotiation and problem-solving
[Key concepts: value, design, audience, purpose; Key processes: negotiating, considering, reflecting, evaluating]

Interact in classroom activities and discussions through asking and responding to open-ended questions, offering opinions and explaining positions
[Key concepts: exploratory talk, discussion, exchange; Key processes: eliciting, prompting, responding, explaining]

Informing

Access, summarise and analyse information from different sources relating to contemporary community and lifestyle issues
[Key concepts: values, generation, culture; Key processes: researching, comparing, evaluating, reflecting]

Organise and present information and ideas on different topics, issues or events, comparing perspectives and experiences
[Key concepts: perspective, engagement, action, debate; Key processes: managing information, shaping text, engaging]

Creating

Respond to a variety of imaginative texts, analysing ideas, themes, values and techniques used to engage and entertain audiences
[Key concepts: audience, engagement, themes; Key processes: responding, analysing, contextualising, explaining]

Create simple songs, plays or stories to entertain others, involving imagined contexts and characters
[Key concepts: mood, drama, effect, audience; Key processes: character and context building, creating]

Translating

Translate and interpret texts, compare own translation to classmates’, and consider why there might be differences in interpretation and how language reflects elements of culture
[Key concepts: culture, equivalence, idiom; Key processes: translating, interpreting, mediating]

Create bilingual texts such as glossaries, menus, captions or brochures, identifying words or expressions that carry specific cultural meaning in either language
[Key concepts: language, culture, meaning; Key processes: selecting, identifying, explaining, comparing]

Reflecting

Reflect on cultural differences between French and English communicative styles and on how these affect intercultural interactions
[Key concepts: values, perspective, respect; Key processes: reflecting, analysing, comparing]

Consider how own biography including family origins, traditions, interests and experience, impacts on identity and communication
[Key concepts: culture, community, communication, identity; Key processes: reflecting, analysing, explaining]

Systems of language

Recognise individual elements of spoken and written words, phrases and non-verbal forms of expression, and notice how they combine to make or to change meaning
[Key concepts: word parts, idioms, expression; Key processes: listening, reading, identifying, describing]

Understand and control additional elements of French grammar such as compound tenses, irregular and reflexive verb forms, verb moods and modalities
[Key concepts: tenses, parts of speech, moods, modalities, metalanguage; Key processes: analysing, categorising, distinguishing]

Analyse the structure and organisation of a range of texts created for purposes such as information exchange or social interaction
[Key concepts: tenor, lexical and rhetorical resources; Key processes: experimenting, reflecting, comparing]

Language variation and change

Examine how elements of communication such as gestures, facial expressions and choice of language vary according to context and situation
[Key concepts: body language, personal space, expression; Key processes: observing, comparing, analysing]

Reflect on changes in their own use of language(s) over time, noticing how and when new ways are adopted or existing ways adapted
[Key concepts: change, influence, communication, identity; Key processes: observing, reflecting, explaining]

Investigate the nature and extent of French language use in both Australian and global contexts
[Key concepts: community, arts, fashion, music, cuisine; Key processes: researching, analysing, classifying]

Role of language and culture

Reflect on different aspects of the cultural dimension of learning and using French
[Key concepts: cultural expression, representation, difference, diversity; Key processes: reflecting, comparing, analysing]

By the end of Year 8, students use written and spoken French to interact with teachers, peers and others and to exchange experiences, opinions and views. They use descriptive and expressive language to talk and write about immediate environments, personal interests and feelings and technical language to discuss issues of wider interest (for example, les nouvelles téchnologies, les rapports entre les générations, le travail, la musique). They ask, give and follow directions and instructions, using phrases such as prenez la deuxième rue à gauche …, suivez le boulevard jusqu’à … and choisissez la photo. They locate and analyse information from different sources presenting it in modes and formats suitable for the intended audience. They use strategies such as emphasis, repetition and summary to support fluency and expression in shared reading, performances, discussions and debate. They plan, draft and present imaginative, informative and persuasive texts, using simple and compound sentences to structure arguments and to explain or justify a position. Students use regular verbs in the passé composé form independently as well as high-frequency irregular verbs such as faire, être and avoir. They use declarative, imperative and interrogative verbs in affirmative and negative forms. They interpret and translate language which has colloquial or cultural associations in either French or Australian English, providing alternative expressions when equivalence is not possible (for example, à tout à l’heure, good on ya!). They make appropriate language choices when communicating in French in different contexts and situations.

Students use metalanguage to explain language features and elements, using appropriate grammatical terms (such as tenses, genres, agreement). They identify how language features such as vocabulary, tenor and register serve different purposes in different modes. They make connections between texts and contexts, comparing expression and representation in similar texts from different cultural contexts (for example, invitations to celebrations or ceremonies, postcards or letters between friends). Students identify the relationship between language and culture, understanding that personal and community identity are expressed through cultural expression and language use. They reflect on their own ways of communicating, discussing how these might be interpreted by others.

Years 7 and 8

The nature of the learners

These years represent a transition to secondary school. Students in this sequence bring with them an established capability to interact in different situations, to engage with a variety of texts and to communicate with some assistance about their immediate world and that of German-speaking communities. They have experience in analysing the major features of the language system and in reflecting on the nature of intercultural exchanges in which they are involved.

German language learning and use

German is used for a range of classroom interactions and transactions, and for creating and maintaining a new class dynamic, explaining and practising language forms, reflecting on ways of thinking and learning, and developing cultural understanding. Learners are encouraged to socialise and interact with users of German beyond the classroom. Additional opportunities for interaction in the target language are provided by purposeful and integrated use of digital technologies, including social media and a range of applications. Learners work collaboratively and independently in the target language, exploring different modes and genres of communication with particular reference to their current social, cultural and communicative interests and needs. They pool information, language knowledge and resources to plan, problem-solve, monitor and reflect. They use and adapt modelled and rehearsed language in familiar and unfamiliar contexts, increasingly generating original language. They make cross-curricular connections and explore intercultural experiences and perspectives, such as the notion of a shared understanding.

Contexts of interaction

While the primary context for learning is usually the German language classroom, there may be opportunities for interacting with peers in German-speaking contexts and with other learners of German, such as through the use of technology or relationships with partner schools. Learners may also have some contact with German speakers and cultural events in the local community.

Texts and resources

Learners listen to, read, view and interact with a widening range of texts for a variety of purposes (informative, transactional, imaginative, expressive). They apply learnt processing strategies and language knowledge, drawing on their grammatical and vocabulary knowledge and their understanding of text conventions and patterns to obtain meaning from texts. They make connections between texts and cultural frames, and reflect on aspects of the variability of language, identifying how cultural values and perspectives are embedded in language and how language choices determine how people, issues and circumstances are represented. They plan, create and present more complex and varied imaginative, informative and persuasive texts (shared stories, poetry, songs/raps, blogs, advertisements, reports, journal entries), applying appropriate conventions of text types. They design interactive events and collaborative tasks, and participate in discussions, games and competitions.

Features of German language use

Learners gain more control of grammatical and textual elements such as the case system, prepositions and tenses, using the present perfect (Perfekt) tense of verbs conjugated with haben and sein and the simple past (Imperfekt) tenses. They use German with increasing accuracy and fluency, drafting and editing texts to improve structure and effect and to clarify meaning. Learners build on their cumulative experience of learning languages to analyse the relationship between language and culture more critically. They identify cultural references in texts and consider how language frames and communicates perspectives and values. They make comparisons between their own language(s) and German, and reflect on the complexities involved in moving between languages and cultural systems. They monitor and reflect on their own intercultural experience and capability as second language learners, and identify their own personal and community practices and identities that reflect cultural influence.

Level of support

Particular support is required at this stage of second language learning to manage the transition to post-primary schooling and to encourage continued engagement. Opportunities to review and consolidate prior learning are balanced with provision of engaging and relevant new experiences and connections. Students are supported to develop increasing autonomy as language learners and users, to self-monitor, and to reflect on and adjust language in response to their experience in diverse contexts.

The role of English

While German is used in more extended and elaborated ways at this level, English is used when appropriate to allow for explanation, analysis and reflection in relation to abstract concepts.

The place of the German language and culture in Australia and in the world

German is an official language of Germany, Austria, Switzerland and Liechtenstein, Belgium, Luxembourg and in South Tyrol in Italy. It is also used as an official regional or auxiliary language in a number of other countries in Europe, and in Namibia in Africa. As one of three procedural languages for the European Union and the first language of 120 million Europeans, the German language showcases the cultural diversity and range of these German-speaking communities. In particular, the interplay between culture and language can be seen in the global influence of the past and contemporary achievements of German-speaking communities in architecture, the arts, engineering, philosophy, recreational pursuits, and scientific innovations, particularly those related to environmental sustainability. The conceptual understandings that sit behind this influence are reflected in the selection of text types and key concepts through which students will have opportunities to use German actively.

The place of the German language in Australian education

German has been taught in schools, universities and communities in Australia since the mid-1800s and by the 1930s was a well-established part of the Australian educational landscape. As well as being a core element of the tradition of a broad humanistic education, German can also be seen as a cultural marker of the waves of immigration from Western Europe. Migration from German-speaking countries is ongoing, thus continuing the contribution that German speakers have made in shaping Australian culture from the time of the first German settlements.

Strong partnerships have developed with organisations such as the Goethe-Institut, the German Embassy, the German-Australian Chamber of Industry and Commerce, the Bavarian Youth Ring student exchange organisation (BJR) and the German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD), to provide solid support for the teaching and learning of German in Australia.

The nature of German language learning

German and English are both derived from the Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family and share many similar lexical items (cognates) as well as grammatical features. Consequently, a native speaker of English has some immediate access to spoken and written German, and from an early stage learners can engage with authentic texts. Modern German also borrows from modern English, for example, der Computer, as does English from German, for example, ‘kindergarten’. German is a pluricentric language with different standards and regional varieties.

German is a largely phonetic language with many of the same sounds as English, and the same Roman alphabet. In addition to the standard 26 letters, there is the use of the Umlaut (Ä/ä, Ö/ö and Ü/ü) and the Eszett (ß). A major difference in orthography from English is the capitalisation of all nouns, a feature that assists the comprehensibility of written texts.

German is well known for its morphological creativity in forming long words through compounding. The German language has two different forms of address, formal and informal, dependent on the relationship between the communicators. German speakers generally rely more heavily than native speakers of Australian English on the use of the imperative to effect action, thus sometimes appearing to be more direct.

Other distinctive features of German are noun gender (masculine, feminine or neuter) and the case system. Changes in the articles of nouns and in pronouns and adjective endings mark the four cases, indicating subject and direct and indirect objects, as well as possession. Marking cases in this way leads to flexibility in word order which is not possible in English. Sentences may appear long to English users, but the case markers and clear and consistent punctuation rules aid comprehension.

The diversity of learners of German

The cohort of learners of German in Australian schools generally comprises students who are second language learners.

Within this pathway, learners demonstrate a range of degrees of exposure to and experience in German. Some learners will have little familiarity with German, although they will most likely have experience of English, another Germanic language; others will have German heritage or a family member who has knowledge of German and/or connections with German-speaking countries.

There are a number of different types of schools in Australia that cater for a range of pathways. In addition, community-driven early-years playgroups are growing in number. Mainstream school provision for background learners is limited, although there are some notable examples of bilingual programs which also cater for non-background students. There are also several complementary providers for German, including distance education and community schools.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages, Foundation to Year 10 – German is pitched to second language learners; that is, to the dominant cohort of learners of the language in the current Australian context. Teachers will make appropriate adjustments to the curriculum to cater for learners of different backgrounds and differentiate learning experiences for these students.

Socialising

Initiate and participate in interactions with peers and adults to discuss and exchange views and experiences
[Key concepts: neighbourhood, school, leisure; Key processes: discussing, commenting, comparing]

Engage in tasks and transactions that involve negotiation and problem-solving
[Key concepts: exploratory talk, exchange of ideas, task management; Key processes: transacting, negotiating]

Interact in classroom activities and discussions through asking and responding to open-ended questions, giving opinions and making suggestions
[Key concepts: interaction, learning strategies, exchange; Key processes: responding, participating, advising]

Informing

Access, summarise and analyse information and opinions from a range of sources relating to topical issues of shared interest
[Key concepts: resources, values, issues; Key processes: summarising, reading, listening, analysing]

Convey information and ideas on different topics, issues and events, describing and comparing views, perspectives and experiences, and using modes of presentation to suit different audiences
[Key concepts: representations, perspectives; Key processes: comparing, classifying, organising]

Creating

Respond to a range of imaginative texts by expressing opinions and feelings about key ideas and making connections with personal experiences and other texts
[Key concepts: plot, character, emotions; Key processes: expressing, reviewing, comparing]

Create individual and shared texts about imagined people, places and experiences, to entertain others
[Key concepts: imagination, audience, entertainment; Key processes: composing, performing, experimenting]

Translating

Interpret and/or translate for friends or visitors terms associated with German or own culture
[Key concepts: relationship, meaning, idioms; Key processes: interpreting, explaining, translating]

Create bilingual resources such as games, vocabulary cards, glossaries, word lists and labelled posters for language learning and the wider community
[Key concepts: representation, organisation; Key processes: selecting, categorising, evaluating, translating]

Reflecting

Participate in intercultural experiences, demonstrating awareness of the importance of shared understanding, and reflecting on adjustments made as a result of reactions and responses
[Key concepts: values, society, reaction; Key processes: adjusting, evaluating, reflecting]

Consider how personal experiences, family origins, traditions and beliefs impact on identity and shape intercultural experiences
[Key concepts: perspective, values, membership; Key processes: reflecting, connecting, discussing]

Systems of language

Recognise the pronunciation of loan words, and understand and apply knowledge of similarities and differences between German and English punctuation
[Key concepts: pronunciation, punctuation, systems; Key processes: comparing, making connections, noticing]

Extend knowledge of elements of the German grammatical system, including prepositions, reflexive verbs, adverbial phrases and subordinating conjunctions, to specify and describe people, objects and places, sequence events and qualify opinions
[Key concepts: syntax, systems, verb tenses, grammar patterns; Key processes: noticing, selecting, linking]

Understand the structures and conventions associated with different types of personal, informative and persuasive texts such as emails, news items and advertisements
[Key concepts: structure, conventions, purpose; Key processes: analysing, applying, describing]

Language variation and change

Identify features of German that vary according to audience, context and purpose in familiar spoken and written texts
[Key concepts: register, variation; Key processes: identifying, comparing, analysing]

Understand that German, like other languages, continues to change over time due to influences such as globalisation and new technologies and knowledge
[Key concepts: change, globalisation, evolution; Key processes: investigating, analysing, understanding]

Role of language and culture

Reflect on different aspects of the cultural dimension of learning and using German
[Key concepts: cultural attitudes and values, assumptions; Key processes: recognising, discussing, analysing]

By the end of Year 8, students use written and spoken German to interact with teachers, peers and others; to make decisions, solve problems and negotiate transactions; and to exchange and justify ideas, opinions and views. When interacting, they use both rehearsed and spontaneous language to ask and respond to open-ended questions and express, compare and justify opinions, for example, Sie glaubt, dass … Ich bin dafür, weil … They apply rules of pronunciation, rhythm, stress and intonation to a range of sentence types and words, including loan words from English. They obtain, summarise and evaluate information from a range of sources. They express opinions and feelings in response to imaginative texts, and make connections with their own experiences and other texts. They plan, draft and present original imaginative and informative texts, following models to link and sequence events and ideas using both adverbs such as danach, dann, früher, vorher and common subordinating conjunctions, for example, als, wenn, weil, dass. They use some modal verbs and imperative forms, for example, Was soll ich machen? Du kannst … Kauf die neue App! They refer to a person, object or place using definite and indefinite articles, personal pronouns, and some demonstrative and interrogative adjectives such as dieser, jeder and welcher. They produce original present tense sentences and use familiar examples of the Perfekt and Imperfekt tenses. They use a range of everyday and topic-based prepositions, adverbs and adverbial phrases, for example, nach der Schule, zu Hause, in der Stadt, gegen die Wand, links, hier, oben, im Süden. They interpret and/or translate terms associated with the culture of German-speaking communities or their own culture, and explain specific values and traditions reflected in the language. They create a range of bilingual resources for the wide community and to assist their own and others’ language learning. They explain the importance of shared understanding, discussing adjustments made as a result of reactions and responses to intercultural experience.

Students explain how language changes over time and identify reasons for change. They identify and apply the German case system (nominative, accusative and dative) and name some grammatical terms and their functions. They describe the similarities and differences between German and English punctuation, including capitalisation, numbers (ordinals, decimals) and quotation marks. They explain reasons for differences in a range of text types, for example, personal, informative and persuasive texts, including differences in text structure and language features. They give examples of how language use varies according to audience, context and purpose. They identify different aspects of the cultural dimension of learning and using German, and explain how language use reflects cultural ideas, assumptions and perspectives.

Years 7 and 8

The nature of the learners

These years represent a transition to secondary school. Students in this sequence are continuing to study Modern Greek, bringing with them an established capability to interact in different situations, to engage with a variety of texts and to communicate with some help about their immediate world and that of Greece, Cyprus and other Greek-speaking communities. They have experience in analysing the major features of the language system and in reflecting on the intercultural exchanges in which they are involved.

Modern Greek language learning and use

At this level, learners express ideas and feelings, exchange opinions, negotiate relationships and manage shared activities. They use modelled and rehearsed language in familiar and unfamiliar contexts and increasingly generate original and personal language (Τα ενδιαφέροντά μου είναι …, Σου αρέσει η μαγειρική;). They create and perform more complex and varied texts, for example, role-plays of interactions at a restaurant, songs about leisure activities, acrostic poems, blogs about experiences at school, tourism advertisements for a Greek island and journal entries. They plan, draft and present imaginative and informative texts, for example, a children’s book, design interactive texts, for example, word games, and collaborative tasks, for example, menus, and participate in discussions and games, such as Greek board games. They use vocabulary and grammar with increasing accuracy, drafting and editing to improve structure and clarify meaning.

Contexts of interaction

Learners work collaboratively and independently, exploring different modes and genres of communication with particular reference to their social, cultural and communicative interests. They pool language knowledge and resources to plan, problem-solve, monitor and reflect. Modern Greek is used not only for classroom interactions and transactions but also for broader interactive and intercultural experiences, such as the exchange of language and culture that occurs with sister-school relationships, and study trips to Greece or Cyprus (Θα επικοινωνήσουμε αύριο με το σχολείο μας στην Ελλάδα …). Extra opportunities for interaction are provided by purposeful and integrated use of information and communication technologies (ICT), for example, videoconferencing, internet video and audio calling, instant messaging and e-learning.

Texts and resources

Learners read, view and interact with a broad range of texts and resources specifically designed for learning Modern Greek in school contexts, such as textbooks, readers, videos and online materials, including those developed for computer-supported collaborative learning. They also access authentic materials created for Greek-speaking communities, such as films, websites, advertisements and magazines.

Features of Modern Greek language use

By building their vocabulary knowledge, learners are able to develop and express more complex concepts in Modern Greek. They use a range of grammatical forms and structures to convey relationships between ideas, events and experiences, developing awareness of the language structures and features of specific texts. They use different processing strategies and their knowledge of language, increasingly drawing on understanding of text types, for example, writing a journal entry, and patterns, for example, correctly using verb endings. They make connections between texts and cultural contexts, identifying how cultural values and perspectives are embedded in language (το παλικάρι, η πατρίδα), and how language choices determine how people, issues and circumstances are represented (Να ζήσετε, Πάντα άξιος, Καλά στέφανα, Καλή όρεξη, Στην υγειά σου, Γεια μας, Σιδερένιος!).

Level of support

Learners may have a range of previous experience in the language or may be new learners. A multilevel and personalised approach to teaching and task design is needed for this diversity of prior experience. Consolidation of prior learning is balanced with the provision of new, engaging and challenging experiences. Learners are supported, as they develop increasing autonomy as language learners and users, to self-monitor and reflect on language use in response to their experiences in diverse contexts.

The role of English

Modern Greek is the main language of instruction and interaction, and English is used for conceptually demanding explanations and discussions. Learners continue to develop a metalanguage for thinking and communicating about language, culture and their sense of self, and connections within and across languages and cultures.

The place of the Modern Greek language and culture in Australia and the world

Modern Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus. It is spoken throughout the world – wherever there are Greek-speaking communities. One of the major characteristics of the extensive Greek Diaspora is the maintenance of the Greek language and culture, especially in Australia, the United States, Canada, Britain, Germany, countries of Latin America and Africa, and areas around the Black Sea, the Balkans, the Mediterranean and the Middle East. Modern Greek is also one of the official languages of the European Union.

The Hellenic civilisation and language have significantly shaped Western civilisation, particularly in the areas of science, the arts, architecture, medicine, mathematics, literature, politics and philosophy. Modern literature and thought in particular have been influenced by the works of Homer and the ancient Greek playwrights, philosophers and historians. The Greek language gives expression to a rich and varied culture and tradition and is still used widely in many fields to coin new terms. The study of the etymology of English words with Greek origins helps in not only the understanding of English and other languages, but also a broad range of other areas of study.

The first Greek people who came to Australia arrived in the 1820s and since then there have been waves of Greek migration to Australia, in particular throughout the early 1900s and prior to World War II. The largest periods of mass migration occurred between the 1950s and 1970s. The migrants’ need to maintain Greek identity through language, culture and religion contributed towards the Greek language flourishing in the home and in the delivery of Greek in after-hours school settings.

Historically, Greeks have made and continue to make a significant contribution to the development and enrichment of Australian society, not only in the areas of commerce, agriculture, industry, trade, education, the arts, medicine, law, politics, government and scientific research, but also in cultural and lifestyle influences.

The place of the Modern Greek language in Australian education

After the early settlement of Greeks in Australia, after-hours community schools were set up to teach the language, predominantly to children of Greek immigrants. From the 1970s, due to government policies supporting multiculturalism, Modern Greek programs were introduced at all levels in the Australian education system, including tertiary level, offering all students regardless of their background the opportunity to study Modern Greek.

Modern Greek is currently taught across all school sectors and contexts.

The nature of Modern Greek language learning

The modern standard version of Modern Greek (Neoelliniki: Νεοελληνική) is the demotic form of the written and spoken language and is the official language taught worldwide. It is an alphabetic (non-Roman) language, with 24 letters, and has remained relatively unchanged since ancient times. Modern Greek is a phonetic language, with a simple form of accentuation and highly structured grammar and syntax. Although many English words are derived from Greek, the language structure is very different. There are, for example, marked differences in the use of articles, gender agreement for adjectives and nouns, verb conjugations, declensions of nouns and variations in word order. These distinctive features influence how Modern Greek is taught in the classroom. They will be seen through the key text types and processes chosen as a vehicle to develop learners’ understanding of them and in the context for interactions through which learners will develop the skills for their sustained use.

The diversity of learners of Modern Greek

Due to the passage of time, shifting trends in migration and the changed nature of the learner, Modern Greek is no longer the exclusive domain of students of Greek background. Learners of Modern Greek in Australian schools come from a diversity of backgrounds, including learners for whom this represents a first experience of learning Modern Greek. Learners of Modern Greek may also be background speakers or second-, third- or fourth-generation Australians who may have connections to the customs and traditions of their heritage but whose linguistic knowledge may be limited or non-existent.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages for Modern Greek is pitched to second language learners, the dominant cohort of learners in the Australian context. There are two learning pathways for students: the Foundation to Year 10 Sequence and the Years 7–10 (Year 7 Entry) Sequence. Teachers will use the curriculum to cater for learners of different backgrounds by making appropriate adjustments to personalise learning experiences.

For students learning Modern Greek for the first time in a school language program, a key dimension of the curriculum involves understanding the cultural dimension that shapes and is shaped by the language. The curriculum is designed with an intercultural language learning orientation to enable students to participate meaningfully in language and cultural experiences, to develop new ways of seeing and being in the world, and to understand more about themselves in the process.

Socialising

Initiate and sustain interactions, face-to-face or online, to share information, ideas, thoughts and opinions about people, objects, places and events
[Key concepts: relationships, experiences; Key processes: exchanging, sharing, discussing]

Participate in collaborative tasks, activities and experiences which involve making decisions, negotiating, planning and shared transactions
[Key concepts: friendship, task, experience; Key processes: negotiating, collaborating, participating]

Participate in classroom interactions and exchanges through asking and responding to open-ended questions and offering opinions
[Key concepts: discussion, exchange; Key processes: responding, expressing]

Informing

Obtain and interpret information from a range of spoken, written, print or digital texts related to topics of interest such as leisure, food and diet, entertainment and special occasions
[Key concept: personal world; Key processes: identifying, selecting, interpreting]

Convey and present information and ideas on a range of topics in different types of texts and modes
[Key concepts: representation, experience; Key processes: sequencing and ordering, interpreting, presenting]

Creating

Engage with and respond to imaginative texts, describing and expressing thoughts and opinions about key ideas, characters, places and events
[Key concepts: imagination, aesthetic, tradition; Key processes: evaluating, reflecting, analysing, comparing]

Create and perform own and shared texts about imaginary people, places and experiences, to entertain others
[Key concepts: entertainment, imagination; Key processes: composing, expressing, performing]

Translating

Translate texts from Greek to English and vice versa, interpreting meaning and identifying words or expressions of specific cultural significance in Greek
[Key concepts: culture, equivalence, idiom; Key processes: translating, interpreting, mediating]

Create bilingual texts in Greek and English, such as menus, posters or brochures on the same theme or event
[Key concepts: equivalence, meaning; Key processes: translating, identifying, interpreting, explaining]

Reflecting

Participate in intercultural interactions, reflecting on choices and adjustments made to language and behaviour when communicating in Greek and demonstrating awareness of the importance of shared understanding
[Key concepts: difference, communication, interpretation; Key processes: reflecting, decentring, clarifying].

Reflect on how own biography, including personal experiences, family origins, traditions and beliefs, impacts on identity and shapes own intercultural experiences
[Key concepts: language, culture, identity, experience; Key processes: identifying, reflecting, decentring, making judgments]

Systems of language

Identify and reproduce irregularities of some sound–letter relationships and combinations, such as σμ, αυ, ευ, μία/μια, όι, άι, οϊ, αϊ, κι εγώ, build on pronunciation, using the accent mark for both intonation and meaning, spell frequently used words and apply accurate punctuation to writing
[Key concepts: sound and writing systems; Key processes: repeating, experimenting, comparing, applying]

Apply knowledge of grammatical features, such as tense, voice, regular and irregular verbs, adverbs, pronouns and adjectives, and use conjunctions to construct compound and complex sentences
[Key concepts: tenses, metalanguage; Key processes: identifying, emphasising, expanding]

Examine the structure and linguistic choices of a range of personal, informative and imaginative texts, such as digital/online diary entries, news reports, cartoons and stories, and consider how these choices were influenced by audience and purpose
[Key concepts: textual conventions, linguistic choices, audience, purpose; Key processes: identifying, comparing]

Language variation and change

Understand how language use varies according to context, purpose, audience and mode of delivery, and how language choices, such as shifting from a formal to an informal style, may signal changes in social settings
[Key concept: register; Key processes: identifying, connecting, analysing]

Recognise that Modern Greek has evolved from Ancient Greek and that changes to the Greek alphabet, number system and style of writing have occurred through the ages; considering factors that have influenced this change
[Key concepts: change, continuity; Key processes: identifying, comparing]

Role of language and culture

Understand how language use reflects cultural ideas, assumptions and perspectives, and reflect on how what is considered acceptable in communication varies across cultures
[Key concepts: attitudes, norms, sameness and difference; Key processes: analysing, interpreting, reflecting]

By the end of Year 8, students use written and spoken Greek to initiate and sustain classroom interactions, (for example, Πότε θα πάμε σινεμά;) to carry out transactions (for example, Πώς πέρασες τις διακοπές σου;) and to exchange information, ideas, thoughts and feelings about people, (for example, Ο μπαμπάς μου είναι καλός μάγειρας), objects, places and events such as, Τι ώρα θα πάμε στη συναυλία αύριο; They ask and respond to open-ended questions (for example, Πού θα ήθελες να ταξιδέψεις στο μέλλον;) and use rehearsed and spontaneous language to engage in discussions, negotiate, make decisions and arrangements, and offer opinions such as, Θέλω να πάω στην Ελλάδα κάποια μέρα. They apply appropriate pronunciation and rhythm in spoken Greek to a range of sentence types, including the use of the accent mark for both intonation and meaning. They locate and interpret information and ideas on topics of interest, such as, Πώς διασκεδάζουν στην Ελλάδα; from a range of texts and communicate information, views and ideas using different modes of presentation. They share their response to different imaginative texts by expressing thoughts and opinions and describing ways in which ideas, characters, places and events are represented. Students create imaginative texts about people, places and experiences to entertain others (for example, Μία αξέχαστη εκδρομή, Όταν ξέχασα να …). They use grammatical features, such as regular verbs, irregular verbs, adverbs, adjectives (for example, έμεινα, έπαιζα, θα μείνω, είπε, να μπορέσω, γρήγορα, πιο γρήγορα, γρηγορότερα, πολύ), pronouns (for example, αυτός, κάτι) and conjunctions (for example, που, πως, ότι, επειδή, δηλαδή, αλλά, γιατί) to construct compound and complex sentences and link ideas and sentences. They apply rules of punctuation and spelling to their own written constructions. They translate and interpret texts, identifying and explaining words with particular cultural significance in Greek, and create bilingual texts for the school and wider community, providing subtitles, captions or commentaries to help meaning. They explain why communication with others involves shared responsibility for making meaning, and identify the choices and adjustments they make when participating in intercultural interactions.

Students identify and reproduce irregularities of some sound–letter relationships and combinations. They analyse the structure and linguistic features of different text types to identify their relationship with audience and purpose. They analyse language use in different contexts, including formal and informal (for example, Συγγνώμη, Με συγχωρείτε), explaining the impact of purpose, audience and social setting. They explain the dynamic nature of the Greek language from ancient to modern times, and suggest reasons for change. They give examples of ways that language use reflects cultural ideas, assumptions and perspectives such as, Έχει φιλότιμο, Καλύτερα να σου βγει το μάτι παρά το όνομα, and how what is considered normal in communication varies across cultures.

Years 7 and 8

The nature of the learners

The transition to secondary schooling involves social and academic demands that coincide with a period of maturational and physical change. Learners are adjusting to a new school culture with sharper divisions between curriculum areas. There is a need for continuity through change in relation to their language learning. Learners at this level may find themselves in classes involving a range of previous experience with Hindi language-culture. A multilevel and differentiated approach to teaching and task design responds to this diversity of prior experience.

Hindi language learning and use

Hindi is used for classroom interactions and transactions, for creating and maintaining classroom relationships, for explaining and practising language forms, and for developing cultural understanding. Additional opportunities for interaction in the target language are provided by purposeful and integrated use of ICT. Learners work collaboratively and independently, exploring different modes and genres of communication with particular reference to their current social, cultural and communicative interests. They pool language knowledge and resources to plan, problem-solve, monitor and reflect. They use modelled and rehearsed language in familiar and unfamiliar contexts, and increasingly generate original and personal language. They compose and present more complex and varied texts (for example, media and hypermedia texts, shared stories, poetry, songs/raps, blogs, advertisements, reports and journal entries), and plan, draft and present imaginative and informative texts They design interactive events and collaborative learning experiences and participate in discussions and activities. They use vocabulary and grammar with increasing accuracy, drafting and editing written work to improve structure and clarify meaning. They make cross-curricular connections and explore intercultural perspectives and experience.

Contexts of interaction

While the primary context of interaction remains the Hindi language classroom, learners are encouraged to engage in interactions with peers in India and other Hindi-speaking regions of the world, including Australia, through electronic means of communication. Learners have additional access to Hindi speakers through media and community events, websites, social media and radio streaming.

Texts and resources

Learners work with a range of texts specifically designed for learning Hindi in school, such as textbooks, literary texts, videos, readers and online media resources. They also access materials created for Hindi-speaking communities, such as songs, films, magazines, advertisements and websites. They read, view and interact with a growing range of texts for a wider range of purposes (for example, informational, transactional, communicative, imaginative and expressive).

Features of Hindi language use

Learners expand their range of vocabulary to domains beyond their personal experience and interests, applying phonic and grammatical knowledge to spell and write unfamiliar words. They use a range of grammatical forms and language structures to convey more complex relationships between ideas and experiences, creating compound and complex sentences by using postpositions such as मैं अभी लिखूँगा ताकि समय पूरा होने से पहले लेख खत्म कर लूँ।. They recognise the function and form of commonly used suffixes and prefixes and relationships between words with a shared base, such as बुद्धि, सुबुद्धि, बुद्धिमान, बुद्धिमती. They distinguish between active and passive voice according to context, मैंने आपको बुलाया है। आपको बुलाया गया है। and use a range of tenses to describe routines and actions, मैं दिल्ली जा रहा हूँ। मैं दिल्ली गया था।मैं दिल्ली जाऊँगा. They develop awareness of how language structures shape textual features, and they adopt a wider range of processing strategies, drawing increasingly on their understanding of text conventions when encountering unfamiliar texts. They continue to build metalanguage to describe grammatical and textual features. They recognise and use idiomatic expressions such as आँख का तारा, and employ descriptive and expressive language, including onomatopoeic and mimetic words, to create particular effects and engage interest.

Learners make connections between texts and cultural contexts, identifying how cultural values and perspectives are embedded in language and how language choices determine how people, issues and circumstances are represented. They are increasingly aware of the relationship between languages and cultures, noticing, for example, values such as family commitment and respect expressed in cultural practices as well as embedded in Hindi grammatical and vocabulary systems. They reflect on the nature of bicultural and intercultural experience, on how languages change in response to social and cultural change, and on their individual identities as users of two or more languages in a multicultural social context.

Level of support

Particular support is required at this stage of learning to manage the transition to secondary schooling and to encourage continued engagement with language learning. Opportunities to review and consolidate prior learning are balanced against provision of engaging and relevant new experiences and more challenging tasks. Learners require continued scaffolding, modelling and material support at paragraph and whole-text level for written language and for developing fluency and accuracy in spoken language. They are supported to develop increasing autonomy as language learners and users, and to self-monitor and adjust language in response to their experience in various contexts. They are encouraged to engage more critically with resources such as websites, dictionaries, translating tools and other language resources designed to enrich their receptive and productive language use.

The role of English

Hindi is used in more extended and elaborated ways and English is used when appropriate for comparison or reflection. Using Hindi to express ideas and feelings, exchange opinions and manage shared activities increasingly involves ‘cultural’ as well as ‘linguistic’ choices, personal and social elements as well as grammatical ones, such as making decisions about the use of titles and polite prefixes. At this stage, learners draw from both languages as they move from the what considerations to the why and how questions: from noticing that language and communication are culturally shaped to thinking about the values, experiences and perspectives that lie inside cultural differences, and about how these impact on their own experience as they move between languages and cultural systems.

The place of the Hindi language and associated cultures in Australia and the world

Hindi is an official language of India and Fiji. It is the most widely spoken language of the Indian subcontinent and is also widely spoken throughout the world in countries that include the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Mauritius, the Gulf countries and Australia. The language and associated cultures have evolved over time due to processes such as colonialism, globalisation and technological change, and to India’s geopolitical and historical position in the world.

The languages of India belong to several language families. Modern Hindi evolved into a distinct language in the New Indo-Aryan Period (from the 11th–12th century). Current understandings of the language are based on the idea of there being a Modern Standard Hindi (मानक हिंदी), based on the Khari Boli dialect spoken in the Delhi area and written in Devanagari script. More broadly, the notion of Hindi also includes a variety of dialect forms that are not covered by this curriculum, such as Braj Bhasa (ब्रज भाषा) and Avadhi (अवधी), which have their own distinctive grammatical standards. Following independence in 1947, the Indian Government instituted a standardisation of grammar, using the Devanagari script to standardise orthography and bring about uniformity in writing. The Constituent Assembly adopted Hindi as the Official Language of the Union on 14 September 1949, now celebrated each year as Hindi Day.

Hindi follows a consistent set of grammatical standards that derive from the same roots as classical Sanskrit. Its vocabulary includes elements not only from Sanskrit but also from Persian, Arabic, Dravidian, other Indian languages and from world languages such as Turkish, Portuguese and English. The lexicon comprises of words taken directly (तत्सम words) and derived from Sanskrit (तद्भव words), as well as other languages. Like all languages, Hindi has multiple registers and freely uses loan words in different registers of speech and writing. Popular everyday registers incorporate many words derived from Persian and Arabic and increasingly incorporate English loan words and expressions.

Hindi is the first language of a large proportion of the population of India and is spoken by more than half the overall population. It is an official language in Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Chhattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Chandigarh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana and Rajasthan. By virtue of its role as a lingua franca, Hindi has also developed regional dialects, such as Bambaiya Hindi in Mumbai, Dakhini in parts of Telangana and Bangalori Urdu in Bangalore, Karnataka. Hindi’s role as a lingua franca is evidenced in many forms of popular culture, such as music and film.

Hindi has been an important element of Indian educational systems, both as a first and second language and as a language of instruction. In non-Hindi states, Hindi may be learnt as the third language.

Significant Indian migration to Australia began in the 1980s and continued through the 1990s. The majority of migrants come to Australia through family connections, and the number of skilled migrants continue to grow. According to the Australian Census, in 2011 there were 111,352 Hindi speakers in Australia. Most Indians are multilingual and Hindi is one of the most widely spoken languages in the Australian Indian community.

The place of the Hindi language in Australian education

The community’s commitment to maintain and to express Hindi identity through language, culture and religion is reflected in the strength of Hindi language use in home and community contexts and in well-established after-hours Hindi school programs. Since 2007, there has been an increase in numbers of students learning Hindi, primarily in community language schools and weekend language schools in New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia. Some programs are now offered in mainstream schools, including programs that cater for second language learners. Total student numbers are relatively low, but increasing enrolments reflect the growing Indian community in Australia and the Australian Government’s commitment to support linguistic diversity in the community and to develop capabilities in the languages of the region, including Hindi (Australia in the Asian Century white paper 2012).

The nature of Hindi language learning

Hindi language learning in the context of this curriculum reflects the profile of the cohort of learners for whom it is designed. They are background language learners, with different levels of familiarity with the language and associated cultures. For many, this existing capability is more oral than literacy-based, and initial challenges associated with learning relate primarily to literacy development. Modern Standard Hindi is written in the Devanagari script, which is also used for Sanskrit, Marathi and Nepali. It is a phonetic script, which accurately represents the sounds and syllabic structure of Hindi. Study of the script involves learning the 13 sounds classified as vowels in their long and short forms and the 33 consonant sounds, distinguished between unaspirated and aspirated consonants and of retroflex and dental ‘ta’ and ‘da’ sounds. There are five Persian and Arabic consonant sounds used in Hindi and represented in script, as well as two ‘flapped’ forms of retroflex ‘r’ sounds. The syllabic structure of Hindi is represented in Devanagari by a system where vowels following consonants are represented by symbols called matra, and two or more consonants can be combined in a syllable without intervening vowels by conjunct forms of consonants.

Learning the Hindi grammatical system is supported by the regularity of key elements. These include a normative subject-object-verb sentence structure and the use of postpositions that impact on agreements with nouns, pronouns and adjectives. Sociolinguistic aspects of Hindi-speaking communities are reflected in aspects of the grammar, such as the system of three levels of pronouns for ‘you’ and linguistic variations that indicate levels of respect. Hindi is a highly inflected language. All nouns are grammatically masculine or feminine, so adjectives agree with nouns, and verbs show agreement for both number and gender. Actions are distinguished not only by time and manner of performance but also through a distinction between habitual actions and actions completed at a particular time. Learning Hindi involves some complexities at higher levels of study, as learners need to understand complex combinations of verbs and the use of causative verb forms, and to recognise ways in which Hindi draws on Sanskrit, Persian and Arabic in the formation of complex compound words in higher registers of speech.

The Hindi language used in the Australian Curriculum reflects the use of Hindi in contemporary times, engaging learners in the full range of contexts in which the language is presently used in India and Australia.

The diversity of learners of Hindi

The Australian Curriculum: Languages – Hindi is pitched to background language learners, the dominant cohort of learners in the Australian context. Students vary significantly in terms of language and cultural experience, variability being defined in part by home language environments, generational language shifts and parental cultural and linguistic backgrounds. Learners may be first-, second- or third-generation Australians. Some may have established literacy skills in Hindi; others will use Hindi in the home or community alongside other languages; others will extend their use of it to social or friendship groups. Others may have learnt the language in large part from forms of mass media, such as Bollywood productions, music and popular fiction. Some have more receptive than productive language capabilities.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages – HIndi has been developed according to two learning sequences: Foundation – Year 10, and Years 7–10 (Year 7 entry). Teachers will use the curriculum to cater for learners of different backgrounds by making appropriate adjustments to differentiate learning experiences for these students.

The intercultural language learning orientation of the curriculum explores the cultural dimension that shapes and is shaped by languages. Background learners of Hindi already have lived experience of this relationship, ‘living between’ Hindi and English in the Australian context. The curriculum provides opportunities for analysis, explicit focus and reflection on this lived experience and further opportunities for students to participate in intercultural experiences, to extend their ways of perceiving and being in the world, and to understand themselves and others as culturally, bi-culturally and inter-culturally situated.

Socialising

Initiate and sustain a range of spoken, written and online interactions, for example, exchanging views or experiences, offering opinions and making connections across different areas of interest
[Key concepts: relationship, experience, communication; Key processes: interacting, listening, responding, recounting]

Engage in collaborative activities that involve planning, problem-solving, communicating and transacting in real or simulated situations and contexts
[Key concepts: design, transaction, planning; Key processes: transacting, considering, problem-solving, decision-making]

Interact with peers and the teacher to complete learning activities and to support their own and others’ learning by managing debate and discussion and checking understanding
[Key concepts: debate, perspective, exchange, response; Key processes: discussing, responding, evaluating, reflecting]

Informing

Access, collate and analyse information from different print and digital sources to present an overview or develop a position on selected issues or interests
[Key concepts: perspective, context, representation; Key processes: comparing, analysing, presenting, profiling]

Use different modes of communication to report on personal or shared perspectives, views and experiences or to invite action or debate
[Key concepts: experience, cultural expression; Key processes: designing, reporting, comparing]

Creating

Interpret and compare representations of values, characters and events from a range of traditional and contemporary imaginative texts
[Key concepts: theme, representation, values, humour; Key processes: comparing, analysing, identifying; Key text types: cartoons, games, fables, films]

Create and perform a range of texts to entertain others that involve imagined characters and contexts and different modes of presentation
[Key concepts: creativity, characterisation, imagination, emotion; Key processes: composing, performing; Key text types: sketches, drama, songs, stories, cartoons]

Translating

Translate a range of short texts used in different contexts from Hindi into English and vice versa, comparing each other’s versions and how they translated elements that involve cultural knowledge and understanding
[Key concepts: meaning, equivalence, translation; Key processes: translating, approximating, comparing, evaluating]

Produce bilingual texts such as digital stories, programs for events, performances, skits or poems that reflect the experience of ‘living between languages’
[Key concepts: equivalence, interpretation; Key processes: composing, selecting, translating]

Reflecting

Consider differences and similarities in style and use of language when interacting in Hindi and in English, noticing when the choice is made to use either or both languages
[Key concepts: code-switching, code-mixing, intercultural communication; Key processes: monitoring, analysing, discussing]

Discuss the nature of identity and of cultural experience, considering the dynamic and responsive relationship between the two
[Key concepts: bilingualism/multilingualism, culture; Key processes: reflecting, analysing, comparing]

Systems of language

Identify correspondence between individual and combined elements of spoken and written Hindi, such as pronunciation of consonant clusters or the pronunciation and spelling of English words used in Hindi
[Key concepts: syntax, prefixes, suffixes, word derivation; Key processes: recognising, analysing]

Apply grammatical and lexical knowledge to work out the meaning of unfamiliar words, to form and spell new ones, to create compound sentences, to recognise and use prefixes and suffixes and to develop metalanguage
[Key concepts: phonics, word building, idiom; Key processes: understanding, applying rules, using metalanguage]

Apply understanding of text structure and organisation to interpret unfamiliar texts and to create own texts for specific purposes
[Key concepts: textual conventions, tenor, audience; Key processes: identifying, classifying, explaining]

Language variation and change

Explore how language use varies according to context, purpose, audience and mode of delivery
[Key concepts: register, mode, audience; Key processes: comparing, explaining]

Reflect on changes in their own use of Hindi over time in social, community and school contexts, explaining reasons for changes or adaptations
[Key concepts: language change, expression, experience; Key processes: reflecting, monitoring, analysing]

Recognise the intercultural and multilingual nature of language use in social media and popular culture, considering how this influences aspects of their lives
[Key concepts: globalisation, cultural expression, multilingualism; Key processes: researching, classifying, explaining]

Role of language and culture

Understand that language is not neutral and that its forms and usage reflect cultural ideas, values and perspectives
[Key concepts: culture, language change, representation, values; Key processes: reflecting, analysing, comparing]

By the end of Year 8, students initiate and sustain a range of spoken and written interactions on topics of mutual interest, for example, आपका क्या हाल है? आप कब वापस आये? परिवार में सब कैसे हैं? आप कहना क्या चाहते हैं? रमा मुझे माफ़ करना लेकिन मुझे लगता है कि …, सच पूछो तो मेरे विचार से; मैं इस बात से सहमत हूँ कि … They exchange views or experiences and offer opinions using language to encourage feedback and to express empathy or indicate agreement, for example, सुन कर बहुत ख़ुशी हुई, बधाई हो!, मुबारक हो। जन्मदिन की हार्दिक शुभकामनायें। बड़े दुःख की बात है; मुझे आप से सहानुभूति हैl आप बिलकुल सही कह रहे हैं। मैं आप से सौ प्रतिशत सहमत हूँ. Student complete transactions by negotiating, planning and solving problems, for example, यह लहंगा कितने का है? यह और कौन कौन से रंगों में उपलब्ध है? खाने में मिर्ची थोड़ी ज़्यादा डालना। चाय गरमा गरम होनी चाहिए। हम यह सामान वापिस नहीं ले सकते क्योंकि आपने रसीद खो दी है. They use reflective and evaluative language to support their own and others’ learning and to manage discussion and debate, for example, ध्यान देने की बात है क…., यह एक और दिलचस्प पहलू है…; जो आप कह रहे हैं वह ठीक है मगर यदि दूसरे दृषटिकोण से देखा जाए तो यह कहना ग़लत नहीं होगा कि…. यह विषय विवादास्पद है. When speaking Hindi, they apply pronunciation and rhythm patterns, including consonant clusters and English words used in Hindi, to a range of sentence types. They locate, collate and analyse information from a range of written, spoken and multimodal texts to provide an overview or to develop a position on selected issues or interests. They use different modes of communication to report on perspectives, views and experiences or to invite action and debate. They interpret ways in which values, characters and events are represented in a range of traditional and contemporary imaginative texts. Students create texts with imaginary characters and contexts in a range of forms to entertain different audiences. They use grammatical forms and features such as prefixes, for example, ज्ञान-अज्ञान-,समान-असमान and suffixes, for example, कृपालु, दयालु, लड़ाई, चढ़ाई), and create compound and complex sentences by using postpositions such as तुम अगर समय पर काम करोगे तो खेल सकोगे। हम सब को अपना कार्य मेहनत और सच्ची लगन से करना चाहिये जिस से हमे सफलता मिले। मैं अभी लिखूँगा ताकि समय पूरा होने से पहले लेख खत्म कर लूँ, comparative adjectives, for example, गीता अपनी बहन से सुन्दर है। मोहन अपनी कक्षा में सब से होशियार है। राम थोड़ा लम्बा है। हेमा से अधिक चतुर है। and basic joining rules such as इ+आ = ए to achieve cohesion.They translate texts from Hindi into English and vice versa, and compare their own translations with others’, interpreting cultural elements. They produce texts in Hindi and English that reflect a bilingual and bicultural perspective. Students identify differences and similarities in the way they interact in Hindi and English, and describe the nature of identity and cultural experience and identify the relationship between the two.

Students identify the relationship between individual and combined elements of spoken and written Hindi and apply writing conventions, including spelling, to convey specific meaning in a range of texts. They use metalanguage to explain aspects of language and apply grammatical and lexical knowledge to determine the meaning of unfamiliar words and to form and spell new ones. They use their knowledge of text structure and organisation to interpret the unfamiliar texts and create new ones. Students explain how and why language use varies according to context, purpose, audience, mode of delivery and the relationship between participants. They explain how and why their own use of Hindi has changed over time and depends on context. They identify the intercultural and multilingual nature of language use across global communities and in social media and popular culture and explain how this influences their own lives. Students explain how language forms and usage reflect cultural ideas, values and perspectives.

Years 7 and 8

The nature of the learners

These years represent a transition to secondary school, and students in this pathway are continuing to study Indonesian, bringing with them a capability to communicate, with some assistance, about their immediate world and Indonesia. They have experience in analysing the major features of the language system and in considering intercultural exchanges, including their role in these.

Indonesian language learning and use

Learners interact using Indonesian in classroom routines and communicative tasks. They give presentations and participate in dialogues, with some preparation and support, such as cue cards. They respond to short texts in Indonesian, locating specific details and gist. Learners are extending the range and quality of their writing through increased vocabulary and grammar knowledge, and by drafting and editing their own work and that of their peers. They recognise text-type features and use models to create a range of texts, including descriptions, recounts and reflections.

Contexts of interaction

The primary context for learning remains the Indonesian language class; however, there may be opportunities for interacting with peers in Indonesia and with other learners of Indonesian, such as through technology and sister school relationships. Learners may be exposed to Indonesian speakers, media and community events.

Texts and resources

Learners engage with a range of increasingly complex texts specifically designed for learning Indonesian in schools, such as textbooks, videos, stories and online resources. Use of authentic texts created for the Indonesian-speaking community, such as songs, films (with subtitles), websites, advertisements, and excerpts from stories, provides opportunities to extend learners’ understanding of language and culture.

Features of Indonesian language use

Learners are extending their grammatical knowledge, such as how language structures and features are used in texts. They are increasingly aware of connections between language and culture, noticing, for example, degrees of formality in language use according to social relationships. Learners are exploring cultural concepts evident in Indonesian, such as gotong-royong, jam karet and selamatan, and comparing them to concepts in their own language and culture. They are learning to reflect on their own language and culture and how identity impacts on intercultural experiences.

Level of support

Learners require modelled language use, particularly at the paragraph and whole-text levels, and explicit instruction in grammatical knowledge, with comparison between English and Indonesian. They need support in using dictionaries, particularly in determining base words and choosing appropriate meanings for the context. Learners continue to access word lists, charts and examples to support their receptive and productive language use.

The role of English

Indonesian is used for classroom interaction, language learning tasks and experiences, and, with support, reflection on learning. Indonesian may be used for learning new content drawn from other learning areas. English is used for analysis, comparison and reflection in relation to abstract concepts.

The place of the Indonesian language and culture in Australia and in the world

The languages of the Indonesian archipelago have been used in Australia since contact several centuries ago between the peoples of the islands now known as Indonesia and the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples of northern Australia. Trade between these peoples left lasting effects on languages, cultures and communities, such as in Makassar and Arnhem Land, which continue to this day.

Indonesian — or Bahasa Indonesia as it is known by Indonesian speakers — is spoken by approximately 230 million people throughout the Indonesian archipelago. Closely related dialects of the same language, usually called Malay, are used in Malaysia, Singapore, Brunei and southern Thailand. Modern Indonesian and Malay trace their origins to Old Malay, which was used in the Srivijayan empire during the seventh century and later in the powerful trading kingdom of Malacca. As a language of trade, Malay spread throughout the archipelago. The colonial rulers of the Dutch East Indies used Malay for treaties, administration and, from the late nineteenth century onwards, education of the local people.

In 1928, Indonesia’s nascent nationalist movement declared that there would be a single national language as the language of Indonesian unity. Following independence in 1945, Bahasa Indonesia was adopted as the new nation’s official language; it became the medium of instruction and an area of study in all schools. Successive generations of Indonesians have now been educated in Indonesian, and for the majority it is one of a number of languages that are used for communication.

Following the countries’ experience of being allies during World War II, close ties were forged between Indonesia and Australia, and many Indonesians arrived in Australia to study as part of the Colombo Plan, which was designed to educate a professional class in order to advance a stable, democratic Indonesia. A number of Indonesians settled in Australia and formed small communities in various capital cities. These communities currently remain small but are steadily growing, with numbers of tertiary students and families from Indonesia living and studying in Australia.

The ties between Australia and Indonesia continue to develop, with an increasing number of Australians (almost one million in 2012) travelling to Indonesia, for leisure, business and education purposes; numbers of Indonesians visiting Australia are also increasing. Indonesia currently has Australia’s largest overseas diplomatic presence, and Australia is the only country outside of Indonesia to host two specialist Indonesian language and cultural centres, known as Balai Bahasa; these provide Indonesian language study for the Australian community.

The place of the Indonesian language in Australian education

Indonesian has been taught in Australian schools and universities since the 1950s. Today Australia is the largest provider outside of Indonesia itself of Indonesian language education for school-aged children. In fact, Australia is recognised as a world leader in expertise on the Indonesian language and Indonesian language education.

Historically the demand for Indonesian language study in Australian schools has been driven by the Australian Government rather than as a direct response to the language maintenance needs of local speakers of the language. Since its introduction, a number of government policy initiatives have supported the teaching of Indonesian, largely for economic and national security reasons. The introduction of Indonesian language studies in 1955 was in response to the Australian Government’s concerns about regional stability in Asia. During the 1990s, with growing national interest in trade with Asia, the Australian Government introduced the National Asian Languages and Studies in Australian Schools (NALSAS) Strategy, which enabled a major expansion of Indonesian in schools, particularly in the primary sector. Indonesian rapidly became the third most studied foreign language in Australian schools. The NALSAS ended in 2002; however, its aims to encourage young Australians to study one of four targeted Asian languages were reignited through the National Asian Languages and Studies in Schools Program (2008–2012), which renewed an economic and strategic focus on Asia. In recent years, the commitment of the Australian Government to the teaching and learning of Indonesian in schools has continued, as reflected in documents such as the Australia in the Asian Century White Paper (2012) and election policy announcements.

The nature of Indonesian language learning

Indonesian is a standardised language that is the official language of government, education, business and the media. It has been and continues to be shaped (for example, in terms of lexicon, grammatical structures and idiomatic usage) by other languages, most significantly Javanese, Dutch, Arabic and English. Colloquial forms of Indonesian, such as bahasa sehari-hari and bahasa gaul, are used for informal daily interactions.

Indonesian is written using the Roman alphabet, and there is a clear correlation and a degree of consistency between its sound and its written form. This feature generally makes it easy for speakers of English as a first language to predict how to say, read or write Indonesian words. It has a number of sounds that require learning, such as the trilled r, the ch sound of the letter c, the combined vowel sounds ai and au, the distinction between ng and ngg, and the glottal stop k when it is a final syllable.

Indonesian grammar is characterised by a system of affixation where prefixes and suffixes attached to base words form new words belonging to different word classes or with changed grammatical function. The most common among these that are relevant to this curriculum are the noun and verb forms using the prefixes ber-, me-, pe- and ke-, and the suffixes -kan, -i and -an.

There is a significant distinction between oral and written, as well as formal and informal, Indonesian. Written language, for example, follows grammatical rules of affixation, whereas spoken language often drops affixes, and vowels are often reduced to single sounds; for example, the formal hijau often appears informally as ijo. Spoken language is also frequently meshed with local languages and slang forms.

A major feature of Indonesian is its extensive pronoun system, which can be quite simple in its initial stages (for example, saya, Anda, kamu) but becomes increasingly complex, with multiple forms according to situations and contexts of use. In addition, the use of object-focus construction is marked, and it is frequently used in both spoken and written contexts to create distance between the agent and the action.

Language features are strongly embedded in the cultural worldview that underpins and shapes the language. For example, Indonesia is a unified nation within which there are multiple languages; cultural, religious and ethnic groups; and geographical and political regions. The sense of diversity is reflected in the national motto, Bhinneka Tunggal Ika (‘Unity in Diversity’).

The diversity of learners of Indonesian

Most recent figures show that there are approximately 190 000 learners of Indonesian in Australian schools, with the majority in primary schools: F–6 (123 538), 7–10 (64 333) and 11–12 (3713). These figures reflect a relatively strong base for Indonesian in primary schools in particular. The majority of students who study Indonesian at primary school do not continue with the language at secondary school due to factors such as lack of availability of the language or opting to study a different language. Secondary school also represents a new entry point for learners who have not previously studied Indonesian.

The majority of learners of Indonesian in Australian schools are second language learners, with smaller numbers of background learners and first language learners. The Australian Curriculum: Languages for Indonesian is pitched for the majority of the cohort of learners of Indonesian for whom Indonesian is an additional language (referred to in the Australian Curriculum as second language learners). The curriculum has been developed according to two main learning sequences for these learners, Foundation to Year 10 Sequence and Years 7 to 10 (Year 7 Entry) Sequence.

For students learning Indonesian for the first time in a school language program, a key feature of learning the language is understanding the cultural dimension that shapes and is shaped by the language. The curriculum is designed with an intercultural language learning orientation to enable students to participate in intercultural experiences, develop new ways of perceiving and being in the world, and understand themselves in the process.

Socialising

Engage with others to exchange ideas, experiences and interests
[Key concepts: milestone, experience; Key processes: exchanging, connecting]

Take action to make plans, solve problems and address needs such as through corresponding and transacting in real or simulated situations
[Key processes: planning, inviting, transacting]

Interact with others by making requests, seeking clarification, checking understanding and expressing opinions
[Key concept: interaction; Key processes: requesting, clarifying]

Informing

Identify, summarise and evaluate factual information related to topics of interest such as leisure, food and diet, entertainment and special occasions
[Key concept: data; Key processes: summarising, evaluating]

Give presentations to describe, compare and report on experiences and topics of interest
[Key concepts: leisure, travel; Key processes: summarising, reporting]

Creating

Respond to aspects of imaginative texts by expressing opinions and feelings about them and comparing these with imaginative texts in own language and culture
[Key concepts: moral, humour; Key processes: comparing, reviewing; Key text types: story, song, play]

Compose individual and shared texts about imagined people, places and experiences, in order to entertain others
[Key concepts: amusement, imagination, admiration, journey; Key processes: composing, collaborating, performing; Key text types: recount, advertisement, cartoon]

Translating

Translate and analyse a range of texts, comparing language choices and exploring differences in meanings
[Key concept: equivalence; Key processes: approximating, comparing]

Create bilingual texts in collaboration with others for the wider community
[Key concept: interpretation; Key processes: designing, explaining]

Reflecting

Participate in intercultural interactions with peers, comparing aspects of culture, monitoring how own culture impacts on language use and how this may enhance or inhibit understanding
[Key concept: comfort/discomfort; Key processes: monitoring, adjusting]

Consider how own biography, including family origins, traditions and beliefs, impacts on identity and shapes own intercultural experiences
[Key concepts: perspective, biography; Key processes: analysing, reflecting]

Systems of language

Notice how stress works in polysyllabic words and the use of intonation in subject-focus sentences
[Key concepts: stress, intonation; Key process: noticing emphasis]

Develop knowledge of me- verb rules and how to link and extend ideas such as by using adverbs and cohesive devices
[Key concept: system, affixation; Key processes: applying rules, understanding]

Expand understanding of textual conventions, particularly related to social and informational media
[Key concept: convention; Key processes: comparing, experimenting]

Language variation and change

Recognise that Indonesian has formal and informal forms and that their style and use depend on the context, purpose and audience
[Key concept: register; Key processes: identifying, connecting, analysing]

Understand that Indonesian, like other languages, continues to change over time due to influences such as globalisation and technology
[Key concept: evolution; Key processes: researching, recording]

Role of language and culture

Understand that language is not neutral and that its use reflects cultural ideas, assumptions and perspectives
[Key concept: interdependence; Key processes: analysing, interpreting, reflecting]

By the end of Year 8, students use Indonesian to interact and exchange ideas, experiences and interests with teachers, peers and others. They pronounce familiar polysyllabic words such as mendengarkan, pekerjaan and mengerjakan, stressing the penultimate syllable. When interacting, they ask questions using for example Apakah?, Di mana?, Kapan?, Berapa?, and respond to questions using, for example, Setuju tidak? Benar/Salah, and asking follow up questions using, for example, Kapan? Bagaimana? Mengapa? They explain and clarify their answers using, for example, karena, or supaya. Students give opinions using for example Pada pendapat saya…, saya kira…, setuju/tidak setuju, make comparisons using lebih… daripada…, and state preferences using saya lebih suka…, yang paling baik… They locate and evaluate factual information in texts, and use models to create their own informative and imaginative texts in order to narrate, correspond with and report to others. . They vary their sentence construction (for example, rambut saya hitam/Ibu berambut cokelat/Bapak mempunyai rambut pirang) to create interest for the audience. Students use cohesive devices such as time markers (for example, Besok, sebelum), adverbs of frequency (for example, biasanya, jarang, belum pernah) and conjunctions (for example, lalu, untuk). They use a range of personal pronouns such as dia, mereka, kami, kita, ber- verbs such as bersekolah, berselancar and simple me- verbs such as memasak, memakai, menjadi, mengunjungi. Students use prepositions of time using pada and place, using di (including with, for example, belakang, samping, antara). They describe qualities using colours (for example, biru tua, merah muda) and adjectives (for example, sombong, murah hati). They translate across languages, identifying where equivalence is not possible, for example, gotong royong, jam karet or ‘daylight saving’. They describe their reactions to intercultural experiences, describing aspects that do or do not fit with their own identity and considering why.

Students know that Indonesian has a base word system that works with prefixes and suffixes to create verbs and nouns, such as -an, ber- and me- words. They differentiate between similar-sounding words and how they are written (such as suka/sukar, muda/mudah), and apply spelling conventions such as ngg (tinggal) and final h (terima kasih). They describe how possessive word order differs from English and have a metalanguage to identify common features such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and subject-verb-object construction. Students identify and reproduce features of familiar text types such as salutations, narrative sequence and cohesive devices. They know that languages and cultures influence and borrow from each other. Students know that cultural values and ideas are embedded in language use, including their own, and consider where these may have come from and how they may be seen from another cultural perspective.

Years 7 and 8

The nature of the learners

These years represent a transition to secondary school. Students in this pathway are continuing to study Italian, bringing with them an established capability to interact in different situations, to engage with a variety of texts and to communicate with some assistance about their own immediate world and that of Italy and other Italian-speaking communities. They have experience in analysing the major features of the language system and in reflecting on the nature of intercultural exchanges in which they are involved.

Italian language learning and use

Learners work both collaboratively and independently, exploring different modes and genres of communication with reference to their current social, cultural and communicative interests. They use modelled and rehearsed language in both familiar and unfamiliar contexts and begin to generate some original language. They work in groups to pool language knowledge and resources, and to plan, problem-solve, monitor and reflect. They are encouraged to make cross-curricular connections and explore intercultural experiences and perspectives, particularly through comparison.

Contexts of interaction

Italian is used for classroom interactions and transactions, for creating and maintaining a class dynamic, for explaining and practising language forms, and for developing cultural understanding. Additional opportunities for using Italian are provided by purposeful and integrated use of ICTs.

Texts and resources

Learners read, view and interact with a widening range of texts for a variety of purposes (for example, informational, transactional, imaginative, expressive). They draw upon Italian-speaking people in the local community and beyond to extend their experience of using Italian beyond the classroom and to gain different perspectives on aspects of Italian culture. They use a range of processing strategies and draw on understanding of text conventions and patterns in language to comprehend and create texts. They are supported to identify how cultural values and perspectives are embedded in language and how language choices influence how people, ideas and circumstances are represented. They compose and present texts (for example, media and hypermedia texts, shared stories, poetry, songs/raps, blogs, advertisements, reports, journal entries). They plan, draft and present informative, imaginative and persuasive texts, and participate in collaborative tasks and in discussions.

Features of Italian language use

This stage involves learners consolidating their understanding and use of regular forms and familiar grammatical structures. They expand their understanding through noticing variation and non-standard forms, for example, dialects used in the local community. They also notice exceptions to rules, for example, irregular forms. They learn to experiment with past and future tenses in their own texts.

Students learn how to closely analyse the relationship between language and culture to identify cultural references in texts and consider how language communicates perspectives and values. They compare their own language(s) and Italian, and reflect on intercultural experiences, including the process of moving between languages and cultural systems.

Level of support

This is a period of reviewing and consolidating students’ prior learning and providing engaging and relevant new experiences and connections. Students continue to benefit from scaffolding and support, such as the provision of visual and contextual cues when accessing texts. They use models, teacher feedback and resources such as word lists and dictionaries when constructing their own texts.

The role of English

Italian is used in classroom routines, tasks and structured discussions. English is used, when appropriate, as a basis for comparison of language and cultural systems. It is also used to allow for explanation, reflection and substantive, open-ended discussions to support the development of the use of Italian.

The place of the Italian language and culture in Australia and the world

Italian, also known as Standard Italian or italiano standard, is the official language of Italy, the Vatican City, San Marino and parts of Switzerland. It is also an official language of the European Union, and a major community language in countries such as Australia, Luxembourg, the United States, Canada, Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina, and in parts of Africa.

Italian is, and has been for many years, one of the major community languages in Australia.

The place of the Italian language in Australian education

Italian has been taught in Australian schools and universities since the 1930s. Initially it was offered alongside French and German as a ‘language of culture’, and Italian curricula borrowed a strong literary and grammatical emphasis from the precedent of Latin. Italian was an important area of academic study providing access to the rich literary, musical and artistic heritage of Italy, with less attention paid to actual communication or contemporary culture. The distance between this academic approach to Italian learning and the real-world experiences of Italian-speaking communities was considerable.

In addition to the presence of Italian learning in schools, in the 1960s the Italian community established extensive Saturday morning schools to provide Italian language learning for their children. In the 1980s, Italian learning and teaching in Australia increased significantly, especially in primary schools, as a result of policies supporting multiculturalism, in particular the release of the National Policy on Languages (1987), which strongly promoted linguistic and cultural pluralism. In this decade, Italian community organisations established ‘insertion’ programs, hosted within regular day schools, to supplement the weekend and after-hours classes directly run by communities. This coincided with a new emphasis in all language teaching and learning on linking school language learning directly to language use in communities, moving away from traditional grammar- or literature-oriented to more communicatively oriented programs. The focus in these communicative programs was on learning language for use in ‘real’ everyday interactions.

The nature of Italian language learning

Italian belongs to the Romance family of languages and is closely connected to its ‘sibling’ languages of Spanish, Portuguese and French. It also has many commonalities and connections with English, sharing many Latin-derived words and using the same Roman alphabet. The meaning of many Italian words can be instantly recognised through their similarity to English. There are points of difference between Italian and English grammars — for example, variations in word order, tense use, the use of articles, and the gendering in Italian of nouns and adjectives — but overall the Italian language is not linguistically or culturally ‘distant’ for English-speaking learners. Phonologically, Italian is relatively accessible to the English-speaking learner. It is a mostly phonetic language, pronounced generally as it is written, which is especially helpful in the development of listening and speaking skills. There is clear emphasis on all syllables, and intonation follows regular rhythms and patterns.

As Italian is widely spoken in Australia, many opportunities exist to hear and use the language in real-life situations, as well as through the Italian media in Australia and in actual and virtual connections with Italian communities in Italy and beyond.

There are also regional dialects of Italian that are used in local contexts both in Italy and beyond. Some students may bring their experience of the use of regional dialects to the Italian classroom.

The diversity of learners of Italian

Learners of Italian in Australian schools come from a wide range of backgrounds, and include learners for whom this represents a first experience of learning Italian; learners who have existing connections with Italian, most directly as background Italian speakers, as second- or third-generation Italian Australians; and learners who may have experience in a related variety of Italian or another Romance language.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages — Foundation–Year 10 Italian is pitched to second language learners as the dominant group of learners of the Italian language in the Australian context. Teachers may use the Italian F–10 curriculum to cater for learners of different backgrounds by making appropriate adjustments.

Socialising

Initiate and maintain social interaction with peers and known adults by seeking and offering ideas, thoughts and feelings about people, events and experiences
[Key concepts: relationship, experience, community; Key processes: sharing perspectives, exchanging, corresponding]

Contribute to collaborative planning of events, experiences and activities, considering options and negotiating arrangements
[Key concepts: event, celebration, experience; Key processes: negotiating, suggesting, requesting, explaining]

Participate in transactions related to purchasing goods and services, such as buying clothing and tickets and evaluating ‘value for money’
[Key concepts: exchange, etiquette; Key processes: transacting, negotiating, comparing]

Participate in classroom activities, giving and following instructions, asking questions to clarify purpose, and describing procedures and actions taken
[Key concepts: community, classroom culture; Key processes: reflecting, explaining, exemplifying]

Informing

Analyse, summarise and share key ideas and information from a range of texts
[Key concepts: fact/fiction, representation, perspective, choice; Key processes: identifying, comparing, sequencing]

Convey ideas and opinions by creating spoken, written and multimodal texts
[Key concepts: youth issues, representation; Key processes: informing, persuading, responding]

Creating

Respond to a range of imaginative texts by expressing ideas and opinions about the themes, characters, events and cultural attitudes conveyed, and relate to personal experience
[Key concepts: narrative, relationships, values; Key processes: interpreting, comparing; Key text types: story, film]

Create texts for particular audiences that depict experiences or topics of interest
[Key concepts: imagination, audience; Key processes: describing, contextualising, narrating, recounting, expressing; Key text types: narrative, description, recount]

Translating

Translate texts, discussing different versions and why these might occur
[Key concepts: equivalence, meaning; Key processes: translating, experimenting, comparing]

Create short bilingual texts such as captions, stories and commentaries
[Key concepts: equivalence, comparison; Key processes: translating, experimenting]

Reflecting

Participate in intercultural experiences to discuss cultural practices, comparing own and others’ reactions and responses
[Key concepts: cultural comfort, cultural assumption; Key processes: reflecting, comparing, questioning, relating]

Reflect on own participation in intercultural exchange and consider how this shapes own identity over time
[Key concepts: identity, intercultural sensitivity; Key processes: comparing, reviewing, reflecting]

Systems of language

Develop an understanding and use the sound system of Italian.

Use grammatical knowledge to extend meanings, including knowledge of irregular, reflexive and modal verbs.

Apply understanding of distinctive features of text organisation.

Language variation and change

Recognise how language use varies depending on the context of the situation and the context of culture.

Recognise the impact of media and technology on the way Italian is changing as a language of local and international communication.

Understand the value of communicating within and across languages, and discuss the interrelationship between Italian, English and other languages.

Role of language and culture

Analyse the ways in which choices in everyday language use reflect cultural practices and values.

By the end of Year 8, students use spoken and written Italian to interact in a range of personal and social contexts. They describe or present people, places, events or conditions; discuss likes, dislikes and preferences; present information; recount and narrate events; and talk about personal, social and school worlds, for example, Ecco mio padre. Si chiama Edoardo. Ha quarantadue anni. They understand main points and some specific details in a range of texts organised around known content and including some unfamiliar language. They express and understand feelings when corresponding with others, making connections between language used and cultural concepts expressed. They respond to and create simple informational and imaginative texts, for example, Io comincio la scuola alle otto e mezzo. Le materie che studio sono l’inglese, la matematica, le scienze e la storia. They express views on familiar topics and make comparisons, adding their own opinions or reasons, for example, Mi piace il mio amico perché è buffissimo. Mi piace anche perché è veramente intelligente. They apply their understanding that texts vary according to purpose and audience, and use contextual clues, questioning and bilingual dictionaries to identify, interpret and summarise the meaning of familiar and some unfamiliar language. They give some justification for their interpretations of texts. They ask questions and seek clarification. Students create cohesive and coherent texts for different purposes on a range of familiar topics, using appropriate language structures and vocabulary, including different modal verbs and tenses, for example, Non posso venire alla partita perché devo studiare. They use conjunctions, adjectives and adverbs to elaborate meanings, for example, La professoressa di matematica è molto simpatica ma il professore di educazione fisica è qualche volta troppo severo.

Students understand and use metalanguage to explain aspects of language and culture. They identify features of text types such as letters, emails, descriptions and narratives. They know that language is chosen to reflect contexts of situation and culture, and identify differences between standard, dialectal and regional forms of Italian. They analyse the impact of technology and media on communication and language forms, the influence of Italian and English on one another, and the interrelationship of language and culture. They know that languages do not always translate directly. They reflect on how they interpret and respond to intercultural experience, and to aspects of Italian language and culture, and discuss how their responses may be shaped by their own language(s) and culture(s).

Years 7 and 8

The nature of the learners

These years represent a transition to secondary school. Students in this sequence are continuing to study Japanese, bringing with them an established capability to interact in different situations, to engage with a variety of texts and to communicate with some assistance about their immediate world and that of Japanese speakers. They have experience in analysing the major features of the language system and in reflecting on the nature of intercultural exchanges in which they are involved.

Japanese language learning and use

Japanese is used for classroom interactions and transactions, for creating and maintaining a class dynamic, and for explaining and practising language forms. Learners work both collaboratively and independently in Japanese, exploring a variety of texts, including songs/raps and role-plays, with particular reference to their social, cultural and communicative interests. They share language knowledge and resources to plan, problem-solve, monitor and reflect. They use modelled and rehearsed language in familiar and unfamiliar contexts and increasingly generate original language. They make cross-curricular connections and explore intercultural perspectives and experiences. They plan, draft and present imaginative and informative texts and participate in collaborative tasks and games. They use vocabulary and grammar with increasing accuracy, drafting and re-drafting to improve and clarify meaning.

Students learn to use katakana and develop their understanding of the relationship between hiragana, katakana and kanji in texts. They read, view and interact with a growing range of texts for a variety of informative, transactional and communicative purposes. They are developing a broader range of vocabulary and expression and creating more complex sentences using structures such as まい日にち、友ともだちとバスでがっこうに行いきます。.

Contexts of interaction

The primary context for learning and using Japanese remains the language classroom; however, there may be increasing opportunities for interaction with peers in a range of Japanese-speaking communities through the use of technologies, partner-school arrangements and community connections. Learners have access to additional Japanese language resources through websites, video clips and other multimodal texts.

Features of Japanese language use

Learners expand their range of vocabulary to subjects beyond their immediate world and familiar experiences. They develop broader grammatical knowledge, using verbs and い/な adjectives, negative conjugations, various particles, counters, superlatives and conjunctions, to describe and sequence events. With support they create a range of texts and participate in information sharing and performances. They recognise and apply Japanese punctuation conventions and the characteristic features of text types such as self-introductions and letters. They analyse more critically and imaginatively the relationship between language and culture, identifying cultural references in texts and considering how language reflects and influences perspectives and values, for example, the use of the prefixes ご/お to show respect. They make comparisons between their own language(s) and Japanese, and reflect on the experience of moving between languages and cultural systems. They monitor and reflect on their intercultural experience and capability as language learners, and identify their personal and community practices that reflect cultural influences.

Texts and resources

Learners work with a variety of texts specifically designed for learning Japanese in schools, including video clips and online resources. They also access materials created for Japanese-speaking communities, such as films (subtitled), websites and advertisements that provide opportunities to make connections between texts and cultural contexts, perspectives and experiences.

Level of support

Opportunities to review and consolidate prior learning are balanced against provision of engaging and relevant new experiences and connections. Students are supported to develop increasing autonomy as language learners and users, to self-monitor and peer-monitor, and to adjust language in response to their experiences in different contexts.

The role of English

While Japanese is used in more extended and elaborated ways for classroom interactions and routines, task participation and structured discussion, English is used for more complex elements of instruction and discussion, analysis and reflection. Learners continue to develop metalanguage for thinking and talking about language, culture and identity and the experience of learning and using Japanese.

The place of Japanese culture and language in Australia and in the world

Japanese is the official language of Japan, Australia’s northern neighbour in the Asia region. It is also widely used by communities of speakers in Hawaii, Peru and Brazil, and learnt as an additional language by large numbers of students in the Republic of Korea, China, Indonesia and Australia.

Australia has a significant number of Japanese national residents, particularly in the major cities on the eastern seaboard. Japanese culture influences many areas of contemporary Australian society, including the arts, design, technology, fashion, popular culture and cuisine. Japan has been a close strategic and economic partner of Australia’s for more than 50 years, and there is ongoing exchange between the two countries in the areas of education, trade, diplomacy and tourism. Japan is an important nation within Asia and a significant contributor to economic, political and diplomatic relations in the region.

The place of the Japanese language in Australian education

Japanese has been taught in Australia for more than 100 years and is widely taught as a second language in Australian schools. The 1960s saw significant growth in the learning of Japanese, with the establishment of many university programs that produced graduate language teachers who worked alongside native-speaking teachers to establish school-based programs. Increased trade and tourism activity between Japan and Australia in the following decades strengthened interest in Japanese-language learning, and government funding such as the National Asian Languages and Studies in Australian Schools (NALSAS) Strategy (1994-2002) and the National Asian Languages and Studies in Schools Program (NALSSP, 2008-12) contributed to growth and further development in both the primary and secondary sectors. The strong relationship between Australia and Japan has led to many collaborative projects in education and intercultural exchange. The Japanese government and private foundations support the teaching and learning of Japanese in Australia through funding professional learning and resource development centres and through involvement in educational exchanges.

The near-parallel time zones and the geographical proximity of Japan to Australia facilitate access, interaction and communication between the two countries. Student exchanges, community engagement such as sister-school and city relationships, and connections developed through other curriculum areas such as art, design and literature provide opportunities for Australian learners of Japanese to interact with Japanese people and to engage in cultural experience. Increasing numbers of students benefit from exchanges and in-country experience. Technology provides many additional opportunities for interaction and exchange with Japanese-speaking people and cultures.

The nature of Japanese language learning

Japanese is the language used by the Japanese for education, business and media communication. Some dialect variations are used in spoken interactions in different regions of the country.

Japanese is a phonetic language. Pronunciation is predictable, and new words can be pronounced easily upon mastery of hiragana characters.

Japanese uses three scripts for writing: hiragana, the basic phonetic script representing the sounds of Japanese; katakana, the companion phonetic script that is largely used for loan words; and kanji, Chinese characters that represent meaning rather than sound (ideographs). The three scripts are used interdependently. Hiragana is typically the first script learnt, with katakana and kanji first introduced in context then taught systematically, contributing to script knowledge and competence. The many loan words from other languages expressed through katakana reflect the impact of globalisation, technology and popular culture on Japanese language and culture.

Japanese grammar is relatively uniform, with few irregularities, no grammatical gender, and predictable and systematic conjugation of adjectives and verb tenses. There are some differences between Japanese and English elements and patterns, such as the Japanese word order of subject–object–verb. This order forms the basis of sentences that can then be enhanced by the addition of details usually placed before the main items. Pronouns can be omitted and it is not always necessary to articulate the subject of a sentence. Counting and numbering in Japanese involve using classifiers that reflect the nature of the item. Particles are used to mark sentence elements and to indicate the nature of verbs.

An element of the language that may be unfamiliar to some Australian learners is the system of plain and polite forms, which reflect hierarchical relations, social and business-related positioning and issues of respect and status. Plain and polite forms are represented differently in both spoken and written language. Conversational Japanese can be less formal than written Japanese, using shortened sentences, abbreviated plain forms and some omitted particles.

Another feature of Japanese culture reflected in language use is the importance accorded to expressing humility and maintaining harmony. Refusing or deflecting praise of self or family, deferential behaviour and avoidance of direct disagreement or refusal are common characteristics of communicative interactions.

A key aspect of the curriculum involves understanding the cultural dimension that shapes and is shaped by Japanese language. The curriculum is designed with an intercultural language learning orientation to enable students to participate meaningfully in intercultural experiences, to develop new ways of seeing and being in the world, and to understand more about themselves in the process.

The diversity of learners of Japanese

While learners of Japanese in Australian schools vary in terms of language backgrounds, cultural experience and prior learning experience, they are predominantly second language learners. Classes may include students with a background in Japanese or in a script-based Asian language. Some students will have had exposure to Japanese language and culture through social interactions, travel or exchange experiences.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages – Japanese is pitched for the majority of the cohort of learners of Japanese for whom Japanese is an additional language (referred to in the Australian Curriculum as second language learners). The curriculum has been developed according to two main learning sequences for these learners, Foundation to Year 10 Sequence and Years 7 to 10 (Year 7 Entry) Sequence.

Teachers will use the curriculum to cater for the range of different learner backgrounds described above by making appropriate adjustments to personalise learning experiences for these students.

Socialising

Interact with others to share interests and experiences, exchange information and express opinions and feelings
[Key concepts: lifestyle, communication, experience, opinion; Key processes: interacting, recounting, responding, elaborating]

Engage in activities that involve collaboration, planning, organising, negotiating and transacting
[Key concepts: negotiation, transaction, presentation, instruction; Key processes: planning, budgeting, comparing, sequencing]

Interact in whole-class and small group activities that involve seeking information from peers or the teacher, asking and responding to questions, making requests, and asking for and providing clarification
[Key concepts: discussion, reflection, suggestion; Key processes: suggesting, clarifying, responding, requesting]

Informing

Access, summarise and reorganise information obtained from a range of texts on a variety of topics, and present it in different formats
[Key concepts: research, data, media; Key processes: researching, collating, designing, presenting]

Present information about events, experiences or topics of shared interest, using modes of presentation such as charts, diagrams or digital displays to suit different audiences and contexts
[Key concepts: information, experience, perspective, audience; Key processes: managing information, shaping text, composing]

Creating

Analyse and respond to a range of imaginative texts, noticing cultural elements and comparing with English-language texts created for similar audiences
[Key concepts: representation, culture, context, values, expression; Key processes: identifying, evaluating, comparing, contextualising]

Create a range of spoken, written and multimodal texts that involve imaginary characters, places and experiences to entertain others
[Key concepts: mood, drama, effect, audience; Key processes: creating, performing, composing]

Translating

Translate short texts such as signs, simple dialogues or phone conversations from Japanese into English and vice versa, noticing when it is difficult to transfer meaning from one language to the other
[Key concepts: culture, equivalence, idiom; Key processes: translating, comparing, mediating]

Work collaboratively to design bilingual resources to convey information to the school community
[Key concepts: bilingual text, glossary, meaning; Key processes: annotating, explaining]

Reflecting

articipate in intercultural interactions, identifying and comparing aspects of culture that affect communication and noticing how own culture impacts on language use
[Key concepts: intercultural experience, perspective, insight, self-reflection; Key processes: comparing, analysing, reflecting, choosing]

Consider how their own biography, including family origins, traditions, interests and experiences, impacts on their sense of identity and ways of communicating
[Key concepts: identity, family, community, communication, culture; Key processes: reflecting, comparing, representing]

Systems of language

Understand that katakana is used for loan words, and that these words must be pronounced within the combinations of available Japanese sounds
[Key concepts: pronunciation, loan words, voiced/unvoiced sounds, contractions, blends; Key processes: pronouncing, recognising]

Recognise and use all katakana and understand the relationship in texts between hiragana, katakana and kanji
[Key concepts: script function, kanji readings; Key processes: identifying, differentiating, writing, reading]

Understand how to control elements of the Japanese grammatical system to express a range of ideas and experiences in written and spoken forms, and recognise the systematic nature of verb conjugation
[Key concepts: metalanguage, verb conjugation, sentence structure, register; Key processes: describing, categorising, analysing]

Understand how and why different scripts are used in different types of texts, such as announcements, tickets, advertisements, public signs or manga
[Key concepts: genre, text features, text structure, cohesion; Key processes: analysing, describing, comparing]

Language variation and change

Explain variations in Japanese language use that reflect different levels of formality, authority and status
[Key concepts: register, tenor, respect; Key processes: differentiating, explaining, comparing]

Understand that the Japanese language has evolved and developed through different periods of influence and change
[Key concepts: language change, word borrowing, intercultural exchange, globalisation; Key processes: identifying, analysing, explaining]

Role of language and culture

Understand that Japanese language and culture, like all languages and cultures, are interrelated, both shaping and reflecting each other
[Key concepts: cultural expression, status, harmony, humility; Key processes: recognising, explaining, comparing]

By the end of Year 8, students use Japanese to interact with peers, the teacher and others to exchange information, recount experiences and express opinions. They use verb ましょう for planning and making arrangements and offering suggestions. They ask and respond to a range of questions, for example, だれと、何なんで、いつ、どこで、using both rehearsed and some spontaneous language, giving opinions and making comparisons, for example, でも or が、わたしは　フットボールが　好きです。でも、母は　フットボールが　好きじゃないです。. Students apply rules of pronunciation, rhythm, stress and intonation to a range of sentence types and vocabulary, including double consonant and long vowel sounds and borrowed words. Students read and write hiragana, read katakana, and write familiar katakana words, including elongated vowels, double consonants and contractions. They read and write high-frequency kanji for verbs (for example, 行きます、見ます、来きます), nouns (for example, 先生、父、母、月よう日), adjectives (for example, 早い), and the pronoun 私. They read some compound words such as 日本語. They locate, analyse and summarise information from a range of spoken, written and multimodal texts, such as video clips, letters, posters, notices and advertisements. They plan, draft and present informative and imaginative texts with the support of modelled resources. They use counter classifiers in response to questions, for example, いくつ、何まい、何本、何分. They build cohesion in their texts and elaborate on meaning through the use of grammatical elements such as conjunctions (for example, だから), and adverbs of frequency (for example, いつも), time (for example, 時、半、分、前まえ) and direction, for example, みぎ、ひだり、前、うしろ. They use a variety of verb tenses to express ideas and experiences, and a range of particles, such as が、へ、から、まで、including for exampleに to indicate timeframes. Students translate and interpret short texts from Japanese into English and vice versa, providing alternative expressions when equivalence is not possible. They share their reactions to intercultural experiences, describing and explaining why some elements fit easily with their sense of their own identity while others do not.

Students understand that the pronunciation of katakana is the same as that of hiragana, and that the pronunciation of borrowed words is influenced by the Japanese sound system. They apply appropriate word order in their spoken and written language, varying the order of noun phrases without altering the meaning. They understand and use いandなadjectives when appropriate, and apply the rules of phonetic change to counter classifiers, such as ひとつ、さんぼん、じゅっぷん. They identify and reproduce features of familiar text types such as emails, descriptions and dialogues. They identify words (for example, お母さんand 母), phrases (for example, どうぞよろしく。), prefixes (for example, お and ご), suffixes (for example, ～さん and ～さま) and titles (for example, ～先生) that indicate different levels of formality. They recognise values that are important in Japanese society, such as maintaining harmony and a sense of collective well-being, and how these are reflected through language and behaviours, such as indirect forms of refusal or disagreement, for example,もうすこしがんばりましょう。. They explain how cultural values and ideas are embedded in all languages and how their own communicative behaviour might be interpreted from other cultural perspectives.

Years 7 and 8

The nature of the learners

These years represent a transition to secondary school and students in this pathway are continuing to study Korean, bringing with them a capability to communicate with some assistance about their immediate world and Korea. They have experience in analysing the major features of the language system and in considering intercultural exchanges and their role in these.

Korean language learning and use

Learners use Korean for classroom interactions and transactions in a variety of tasks in different modes that involve spoken and written Korean. They have extra opportunities to use Korean by a purposeful integration of the use of virtual communication. They present, explain, and compare information, opinions or ideas, on their current interests or topics drawn from other learning areas, practising language forms and developing cultural understanding, working both independently and collaboratively. They use primarily modelled and rehearsed language for planning, problem-solving, decision-making and reflecting, with increasing personal and original use of vocabulary, and experiment with known grammatical forms and structures to use them with increasing independence in familiar and unfamiliar contexts. They explore and reflect on their own and others’ intercultural perspectives and practices.

Contexts of interaction

The primary context for interaction remains the Korean language class; however, there may be opportunities for interacting with peers in Korea and with other learners of Korean, for example, through technology or sister-school relationships. Learners may have extra access to Korean speakers through media and community events and resources.

Texts and resources

Learners work with a broad range of texts and resources specifically designed for learning Korean in school contexts, such as textbooks, readers, videos and online materials including those developed for computer-supported collaborative learning. They may also access authentic materials created in Korean for general audience within Korea as well as in international contexts, with subtitles as necessary, such as songs, stories, films, websites, advertisements and magazines.

Features of Korean language use

Learners expand their range of vocabulary to domains beyond their personal interests. They use a range of grammatical forms and structures to convey more complex relationships between ideas and events, developing awareness of how language structures and features build up textural features. They use descriptive and expressive language including onomatopoeic and mimetic words to create expressive effects and interests. They pronounce sounds at syllable boundaries with increasing accuracy, applying relevant Korean pronunciation rules. They are increasingly aware of connections between language and culture, noticing, for example, politeness expressed in cultural practices as well as embedded in Korean grammar and vocabulary systems, and the choices of polite language determined by age and social relationships. They reflect on how language changes with social cultural changes and on their own language and culture. They have increasing awareness of their identity as users of two or more languages and reflect on the impact of intercultural experiences on identity-shaping.

Level of support

Learners need continued scaffolding, modelling and material support particularly at the paragraph and entire text level for written language and for developing fluency and accuracy in spoken language. Explicit instruction of grammatical features and modelling will be effective for their development of metalanguage use and expansion of metalinguistic knowledge of Korean. Learners are encouraged to be autonomous and to self-monitor in task-based activities integrated with implicit form-focused learning approach. Learners continue to use dictionaries with teacher support with increasing independence and to access word lists, charts and examples to enrich their receptive and productive language use.

The role of English

Korean is increasingly used at this level for classroom interactions and routines, for task participation and structured discussions, and encouraged to be used for learning new content drawn from other learning areas as long as its conceptual demand and complexity is within students’ linguistic scope in Korean. English continues to be used for more complex elements of instruction and explanations, and for more substantive discussion, analysis and reflection in relation to abstract concepts. Learners continue to develop a metalanguage for thinking and talking about language, culture and identity and the experience of learning Korean.

The place of the Korean culture and language in Australia and the world

Korean is the language of one of Australia’s important neighbours in the Asian region and is spoken by around 80 million people in the Korean Peninsula and worldwide. With the rapidly growing popularity of and interest in Korean culture across the world, the number of people learning Korean is also growing fast in many countries in Asia, Oceania, the North and South Americas, Europe and Africa. In Australia, Korean is spoken by more than 150 000 people, and the presence of the Korean culture and language, together with Korean brands of high-technology products, is increasingly evident in various sectors of society.

Australia and the Republic of Korea have established and reinforced people-to-people relationships through cultural and educational exchanges for more than half a century. The first recorded contact between Australia and Korea took place in the late 19th century through Australian missionaries visiting the Korean Peninsula. In the early 20th century, there was a period when contact between the two countries was not possible due to the Japanese colonial rule over Korea. With the end of World War II and Australia’s participation in the United Nations Commissions on Korea (UNCOK) in 1947 and in the Korean War (1950–1953), the two countries formed a strong bond and have established a strong trade partnership. With an increasing awareness of the need to expand the partnership to other sectors, awareness of the need to better understand the country and culture, and to learn the language, has also increased as opportunities for exchanges and collaborations are expanding to education, science and technology, culture, media, sports, leisure, tourism and community activities. Visitors from Korea, including primary-aged students on study trips, may provide young Australian learners of Korean with opportunities for rich cultural and linguistic experiences.

The place of the Korean language in Australian education

There have been a number of government policy initiatives that have supported the teaching of Korean in Australian education since it was introduced to Australian schools in the early 1990s. During the 1990s, with growing national interest in trade with Asia, the Australian Government introduced the National Asian Languages and Studies in Australian Schools (NALSAS) Strategy. Later, the aims of NALSAS were reignited through the National Asian Languages and Studies in Schools Program, which ran from the late 2000s until the early 2010s with a renewed economic and strategic focus on Asia, encouraging young Australians to study Korean, one of four targeted Asian languages. In recent years, the commitment of the Australian Government to the teaching and learning of Korean in schools has continued as is evident in documents such as South Korea: Country Strategy (Australian Government, Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2013).

With the support of the Australian Government for learning and teaching Korean in Australian schools and growing interest in Korean culture and opportunities to encounter Koreans and Korean products, there is an increasing demand for Korean language education from the community. Among young learners in Australia, there has been a significant increase in the popularity of Korean culture, including traditional and youth/pop culture, as seen in frequent performances of traditional Korean dance and music and in the surge of popularity of K-pop (Korean pop). There is also an increasing awareness of possible career opportunities for those who have attained a high level of proficiency in the Korean language and a sound intercultural understanding.

The nature of Korean language learning

The Korean language has its own alphabetic writing system called Hangeul. Hangeul consists of 24 basic letters, comprising 14 basic consonants and 10 basic vowels. Learning Hangeul involves learning how to combine consonants and vowels to produce a syllable in Korean, which corresponds to a syllabic block in its written form. As students learn Hangeul, they also learn about its philosophical, scientific, linguistic and cultural underpinnings, where the three elements of vowel letters (•, ㅡ, ㅣ) symbolise the three respective elements in oriental cosmology – heaven, earth and human – and consonant letters symbolise the shapes of the speech organs: lips, teeth, tongue and throat. Students’ learning is enhanced by understanding the importance of Hangeul’s creator, King Sejong the Great, who, in the 15th century, believed that his people’s wellbeing was directly related to literacy and could be enhanced through the creation of a writing system that would represent their spoken language.

Korean is an agglutinative language. Students learn how to agglutinate various particles or suffixes to nominals or verb stems to express a range of grammatical, semantic or pragmatic information. The word order of Korean is subject–object–verb (SOV); however, learners also learn that word order in Korean is flexible as long as the verb-final rule is observed, and that contextually understood elements may be left unexpressed in Korean discourse. Honorifics are one of the important features of Korean. Students learn how to use Korean to express their thoughts with cultural bearing through the systematic use of honorifics and through non-verbal behaviour that corresponds to the chosen honorific. The Korean language easily incorporates words from other languages. Students learn about Korean culture as well as how to use the language in culturally appropriate ways.

The diversity of learners of Korean

Australian students have multiple, diverse and changing needs that are shaped by different individual, personal and learning histories as well as personal, cultural and language backgrounds. Learners of Korean in Australia can be identified in three major groups: second language learners (learners who are introduced to learning Korean at school); background language learners (learners who may use Korean at home, not necessarily exclusively, and have knowledge of Korean language and culture to varying degrees); and first language learners (learners who have had their primary socialisation as well as initial literacy development in Korean, and use Korean at home as their first language).

The Australian Curriculum: Languages, Foundation to Year 10 for Korean is pitched to second language learners. The curriculum has been developed according to two main learning sequences for these learners: Foundation – Year 10, and Years 7–10. Teachers will use the Korean F–10 curriculum to cater for learners of different backgrounds by making appropriate adjustments to differentiate learning experiences for these students.

For students learning Korean for the first time in a school language program, a key component of their learning is to understand the cultural dimension that shapes and is shaped by the language. The curriculum is designed with an intercultural language learning orientation to enable students to participate meaningfully in intercultural experiences, to develop new ways of seeing and being in the world and to understand more about themselves in the process.

Socialising

Initiate and sustain interactions with peers and adults by seeking and offering ideas, expressing thoughts and feelings and making connections across different areas of interest
[Key concepts: respect, significance, experience; Key processes: exchanging, connecting, explaining, using communication strategies]

Taking action in collaborative tasks, activities and experiences which involve negotiation, making arrangements, problem-solving and shared transactions
[Key concepts: collaboration, priority, alternatives; Key processes: planning, discussing,negotiating]

Participate in classroom interactions and exchanges such as giving and following instructions, clarifying meanings, explaining and describing actions and reflecting on responses
[Key concepts: responsibility, mindful learning, exchange; Key processes:eliciting, monitoring, reflecting]

Informing

Identify,classify and compare information and ideas obtained from spoken, written, print or digital texts
[Key concepts:information, data; Key processes: classifying, summarising, evaluating]

Present oral and written reports, summaries and comparisons of information obtained from a range of Korean texts in different modes
[Key concepts: leisure, travel; Key processes: summarising, reporting,using multimedia presentation technology]

Creating

Compare ways in which people, places and experiences are represented in different imaginative and expressive texts,drawing on own interpretations, those of peers and personal experiences
[Key concepts: expression, imagination,humour; Key processes: expressing, comparing, analysing, reflecting]

Create and present imaginative texts including digital and interactive texts to entertain others,involving imagined characters and contexts
[Key concepts: imagination, amusement, expressive language; Key processes:character and context building, creating]

Translating

Compare own translation of texts with others, discussing differences and possible reasons and alternatives, and reflecting on how to make connections between meanings in different languages
[Key concepts: culture, equivalence; Key processes: mediating, interpreting, translating]

Create texts in Korean and English on same themes or events in different modes such as digital photo stories, short video clips or cartoons, and provide subtitles, captions or commentaries in either language to help meaning
[Key concepts: equivalence, culture; Key processes: identifying, explaining, designing]

Reflecting

Reflect on the experience of using Korean to communicate in different social situations and on their individual responses to differences in language use
[Key concepts: social context,comfort/discomfort, intercultural communication; Key processes: monitoring, analysing, adjusting]

Create spoken, written or multimodal texts that reflect significant experiences related to the experience of learning Korean language and culture
[Key concepts: identity, significance,perspective; Key processes: explaining, discussing, reflecting]

Systems of language

Use appropriate pronunciation rules and writing conventions to produce and read short texts in Korean that include some less familiar language
[Key concepts: system, rules, patterns; Key processes: inferring, analysing, applying rules]

Understand and use grammatical forms and structures such as suffixes for tense, honorifics and polite style marking, and auxiliary verbs and particles, using appropriate metalanguage to identify or explain forms, structures and parts of speech
[Key concepts: parts of speech, grammatical structures, syntactic relationship, honorifics; Key processes: applying rules, categorising, explaining]

Understand and use some words and expressions that reflect Korean culture, noticing those that need additional explanation to convey their original meaning in translation
[Key concepts: culture-specific words, idioms, expressiveness; Key processes: predicting, applying, selecting]

Examine grammatical structures and features and vocabulary in a range of personal, informative and imaginative texts in spoken and written modes, noticing how these contribute to textual cohesion, and compose short texts for different purposes considering cultural aspects involved
[Key concepts:coherence, cohesion, text conventions; Key processes: describing, analysing, experimenting]

Language variation and change

Explore how language use varies according to context, purpose and audience and to the mode of delivery and the relationship between participants
[Key concepts: context, negotiation,interrelationship; Key processes: comparing, connecting, reflecting]

Explore and reflect on the impact of social, cultural and intercultural changes such as globalisation and new technologies on Korean as a language of local, international and virtual communication and on their own individual use of language
[Key concepts: globalisation, influence, digital media; Key processes:researching, explaining, reflecting]

Explore the power and influence of language in local and global contexts
[Key concepts: social power, context; Key processes:analysing, explaining, recounting, reflecting]

Role of language and culture

Analyse how beliefs and value systems are reflected in language use and communicative behaviours, and reflect on how what is considered normal in communication varies across cultures
[Key concepts: norms, beliefs, value system; Key processes: analysing, interpreting, reflecting]

By the end of Year 8, students use written and spoken Korean to interact with teachers, peers and others, and to exchange ideas, experiences and interests. They pronounce polysyllabic words that involve syllable-final consonants (받침) such as 먹고, 어떻게 and 축하합니다 as 먹꼬, 어떠케 and 추카함니다, applying relevant pronunciation rules with some accuracy. When interacting, they initiate conversations (for example, 지금 뭐 해요? 어디 가요?), and ask and respond to questions (for example, 왜 한국어를 배워요? 방학 때 뭐 할 거예요?). Students clarify answers or instructions (for example, 무슨 뜻이에요? 다시 말해 주세요) and ask for and give opinions (for example, 어떻게 생각해요?; 제 생각에는…; …인 것 같아요). They describe plans (for example, 한국에 갈 거예요) and ask for suggestions (for example, 무엇을 할까요?). They locate and evaluate factual information in texts and create informative and imaginative texts in a range of modes using multimodal or conventional formats. Students explain reasons for actions and show contrasts between feelings or facts, using conjunctive suffixes (clausal connectives) such as –어/아서 and –지만 (for example, 소라가 좋아서 한국어를 배웠어요; 모자가 예쁘지만 너무 작아요). They use humble/honorific words or honorific particles such as 진지, 드리다 and –께 appropriately, and use some basic onomatopoeic and mimetic words such as 똑똑 and 콜콜 to create expressive effects and engage the interest of the audience. Students use cohesive devices, for example, conjunctions (such as 그리고, 그래서, 그러나, 그런데, –고, –어/아서, –지만), adverbs of frequency (such as 가끔, 보통, 자주, 언제나), time (such as 벌써, 아직) and direction (such as 쭉, 곧장) and the agreement among honorific elements, at sentence level (for example, 할머니께 꽃을 드려요) and throughout the text by using the informal polite style ending –어/아요. They use a range of case markers and particles such as –의, – (으)로, 와/과, –부터 and –까지 (for example, 소라의 생일, 색연필로, 왼쪽으로, 불고기와 김치, 아침부터 저녁까지) and location nouns attached by –에 to indicate relative locations (for example, 책상 위에 …, 상자 안에 …). Students use some complex structures in verb phrases such as –어/아 주다, –고 있다, –(으)ㄹ 줄 알다, –(으)ㄹ 수 있다 and –어/아 보다 as set phrases. They form questions using a range of question words such as 언제, 어디, 어떻게, 어느 and 무슨, and modify nouns using an adjectival form of a descriptive verb suffixed by –(으)ㄴ (for example, 착한 사람). Students write loan words from English in Hangeul and compare their original pronunciation and how they are pronounced as loan words in Korean (for example, 테니스, 포크). They translate across languages, paraphrasing or annotating words or expressions where equivalence is not possible, such as 정들었어요, 세배 or ‘mufti day’. They recount their reactions to intercultural experiences, describing and reflecting on aspects that do or do not fit with their own sense of identity.

Students identify grammatical elements such as case markers, particles, suffixes and verb endings from simple Korean sentences, and compare how grammatical functions of nouns and verbs are determined in Korean and English sentences. They provide examples of the Korean honorific system that works at grammar and word levels (for example, 진지 드세요) and illustrate how politeness and respect are important aspects of Korean language and culture. Students differentiate between oral and written forms of words, and apply spelling conventions and spacing rules in their writing. Students explain how word order in Korean differs from English and use a metalanguage to identify common features such as nouns, verbs, cases and subject–object–verb/subject–verb–object constructions. Students identify and reproduce characteristic grammatical features in familiar texts. They vary their language use and make choices of linguistic features, such as the use of polite forms, according to the context. They provide examples showing that Korean is a language for local, international and virtual communication and that it continuously changes as society and culture change, impacted by globalisation and new technologies. Students explain how cultural values and ideas are embedded in language and communicative behaviours. They give examples from their own language/s and cultural behaviour/s which may be interpreted differently from other cultural perspectives and give such possible interpretations.

Years 7 and 8

The nature of the learners

These years represent a transition to secondary school. Students in this sequence are continuing to study Spanish, bringing with them an established capability to interact in different situations, to engage with a variety of texts, and to communicate with some assistance about their immediate world and that of Spain and other Spanish-speaking communities. They have experience in analysing the major features of the language system and in reflecting on the nature of intercultural exchanges in which they are involved.

Spanish language learning and use

Spanish is used for classroom interactions and transactions, for creating and maintaining a class dynamic, for explaining and practising language forms, and for developing cultural understanding. Learners work both collaboratively and independently in Spanish, exploring a variety of texts (such as online forums, songs/raps, debates and role-plays) with particular reference to their current social, cultural and communicative interests. They share language knowledge and resources in small groups to plan, problem-solve, monitor and reflect. They use modelled and rehearsed language in familiar and unfamiliar contexts and increasingly generate original language. They make cross-curricular connections and explore intercultural perspectives and experiences. They plan, draft and present imaginative, informative and persuasive texts; design interactive events and collaborative tasks; and participate in discussions and games. They use vocabulary and grammar with increasing accuracy, drafting and editing to improve structure and clarify meaning.

Contexts of interaction

The primary context for learning and using Spanish remains the language classroom; however, there may be increasing opportunities for interaction with peers in a range of Spanish-speaking communities through the use of technologies and social networks, partner-school arrangements and community connections. Learners have access to additional Spanish-language resources through websites, social media and radio streaming.

Texts and resources

Learners work with a variety of texts specifically designed for learning Spanish in schools, such as textbooks, videos, readers and online resources. They also access materials created for Spanish-speaking communities, such as films (subtitled), websites, magazines and advertisements, providing opportunities to make connections between texts and cultural contexts, perspectives and experiences.

Features of Spanish language use

Learners expand their range of vocabulary beyond their immediate world and familiar experiences. They make clearer distinctions between stress and intonation patterns to increase fluency and enhance expression. They develop broader grammatical knowledge, using present, past and future tenses of regular and irregular verbs to describe and sequence events. They recognise and apply characteristic features of additional types of texts. Learners develop an awareness of the diversity of languages and cultures in the Spanish-speaking world. They analyse more critically and imaginatively the relationship between language and culture, identifying cultural references in texts and considering how language reflects and influences perspectives and values. They make comparisons between their own language(s) and Spanish, and reflect on the complexities involved in moving between languages and cultural systems. They monitor and reflect on their own intercultural experience and capability as language learners, and identify their own personal and community practices that reflect cultural influences.

Level of support

Opportunities to review and consolidate prior learning are balanced against provision of engaging and relevant new experiences and connections. Learners are supported to develop increasing autonomy as language learners and users, and to self-monitor and adjust language in response to their experiences in different contexts.

The role of English

While Spanish is used in more extended and elaborated ways for classroom interactions and routines, task participation and structured discussion, English is used for more complex elements of instruction and for more substantive discussion, analysis and reflection. Learners continue to develop a metalanguage for thinking and talking about language, culture and identity and the experience of learning and using Spanish.

The place of the Spanish language and the cultures of Spanish speakers in Australia and in the world

Spanish is a global language spoken by approximately 500 million people across the world. Spanish evolved from Latin on the Iberian Peninsula in around the ninth century, and travelled from Spain to the Caribbean and to North, Central and South America as a result of the expeditions of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The language has been enriched by many other languages, including Arabic, Basque, Greek, French, English and the indigenous languages of the Americas.

Today, most Spanish-speaking countries are plurilingual, and the indigenous languages of these countries – such as the Guaraní language of Paraguay, and Quechua, Aymara and more than 30 other languages in Bolivia – are co-official with Spanish. Spain also has other official languages besides Spanish, including Catalan, Galician and Basque/Euskera.

The migration of Spanish speakers to Australia began in the nineteenth century and increased during the twentieth century with people migrating from countries such as Spain, Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Peru and Guatemala. Patterns of migration of Spanish speakers to Australia during the twentieth century were influenced by a variety of factors, including economic and political circumstances. Migration from Spanish-speaking countries such as Colombia, Venezuela, Mexico and Ecuador continues in the twenty-first century and is currently influenced by interest in tertiary education and employment opportunities presented by trade agreements in sectors such as mining, agriculture, defence, technology and education. Due to this steady history of migration from Spanish-speaking countries to Australia, Spanish remains an important community language throughout Australia.

The place of the Spanish language in Australian education

The universities were the first Australian educational institutions to undertake the formal teaching of Spanish. By the end of the 1960s, Spanish language departments had been established in a number of Australian universities.

Spanish language programs are currently available in all states and territories at all levels of schooling. Programs are offered across all educational sectors, including community language schools and other after-hours providers. Many university and school Spanish programs provide opportunities for Australian students to enrich their language learning through travel to Spanish-speaking countries.

The work of Spanish-speaking artists, musicians, writers and scientists is studied in a range of learning areas across the curriculum in Australian schools. These works inform the selection of key types of texts and learning experiences offered to students through the Spanish language curriculum. These cross-curricular links make language learning more meaningful for students.

The nature of Spanish language learning

As Spanish belongs to the family of Romance languages, derived from Latin, it has many lexical and structural connections with English as well as other European languages. As a result of this relationship, knowledge of Spanish can facilitate the learning of other languages from the Romance family, such as Catalan, Galician, Italian, French, Portuguese and Romanian.

Distinctive characteristics and features of the Spanish language guide the teaching and learning of the language in schools. The close correspondence between the written and spoken forms of Spanish assists with spelling and the development of literacy in general as well as with speaking and listening skills.

Although the Spanish alphabet and writing system are similar to those of English, there are some differences in these features that present challenges for Australian students. These features include the use of accents, inverted question and exclamation marks at the beginning of questions and exclamations, and the distinctive letter ñ.

Word order in Spanish differs from English, most noticeably in the positioning of adjectives after nouns. Subject pronouns are often omitted in Spanish where they would be required in English. It is not necessary to invert the subject and the verb to form a question, or to use auxiliary verbs in negative and interrogative constructions, hence intonation and stress are important for making meaning.

The diversity of learners of Spanish

The majority of learners of Spanish in Australia are studying it as a second or additional language. There are also a number of background learners of Spanish, who have varying degrees of prior knowledge of the language. Most students from Spanish-speaking backgrounds are second or third generation, and in many cases several languages are spoken in their home environment. Despite having some exposure to Spanish at home, students may have varying levels of language and literacy skills. The Australian Curriculum: Languages – Spanish Foundation to Year 10 has been developed for second language learners but is flexible enough that teachers can adapt it to suit the varying needs of the full range of other learners in the classroom.

Socialising

Participate in a range of spoken, written and online interactions, for example, exchanging views and experiences, apologising, thanking, inviting or congratulating
[Key concepts: relationship, experience, milestone, community; Key processes: experiencing, responding, connecting]

Engage in collaborative tasks, activities and experiences that involve negotiation, making arrangements, problem-solving and transacting
[Key concepts: event, experience; Key processes: negotiating, transacting, inviting]

Engage in class activities and discussions through asking and responding to open-ended questions, and expressing or rejecting points of view
[Key concepts: values, negotiation, classroom culture; Key processes: inviting, eliciting, explaining]

Informing

Analyse and summarise key ideas and information from a variety of texts on a range of topics
[Key concepts: data, event; Key processes: researching, analysing, summarising]

Organise and present information and ideas on different topics, issues or events, comparing perspectives and experiences
[Key concepts: perspective, youth issues; Key processes: reporting, managing information]

Creating

Respond to a variety of imaginative texts by expressing opinions and comparing the ways in which people, places and experiences are represented
[Key concepts: fact, fiction, humour; Key processes: comparing, responding, expressing]

Create texts about imagined characters, contexts and experiences to engage and entertain others
[Key concepts: amusement, entertainment; Key processes: describing, expressing feelings, entertaining]

Translating

Translate and interpret a range of texts, compare own version with others’ and discuss reasons for any variations
[Key concepts: equivalence, culture; Key processes: translating, interpreting, comparing]

Produce short bilingual texts such as digital stories, comics and blogs, and discuss how language reflects culture
[Key concept: interpretation; Key processes: comparing, explaining, experimenting]

Reflecting

Reflect on intercultural communication, commenting on perceived similarities and differences in language used and on aspects of culture
[Key concepts: similarity, difference, assumption; Key processes: monitoring, reflecting, questioning]

Identify significant people, places, events and influences in own and others’ lives and explain why they are important to their sense of identity
[Key concepts: biography, community; Key processes: analysing, reflecting]

Systems of language

Develop more consistent control of the rhythms and intonation of spoken Spanish and of the features of the writing system
[Key concepts: pitch, stress, rhythm, intonation; Key process: noticing emphasis]

Understand and control grammatical structures such as different forms of the past tense, regular and irregular verbs, interrogative and imperative moods, and conjunctions in a range of familiar types of texts
[Key concepts: parts of speech, tense, mood; Key processes: analysing, categorising, distinguishing]

Analyse the structure and organisation of a range of texts, particularly those related to social and informative media, for example, blogs, advertisements and text messages
[Key concepts: register, comparison; Key process: analysing]

Language variation and change

Examine how elements of communication, including gestures, facial expressions and use of silence, vary according to context, situation and relationships across languages and cultures
[Key concepts: body language, personal space, status; Key processes: observing, comparing, analysing]

Understand the dynamic nature of languages
[Key concepts: change, influence, evolution, globalisation; Key processes: observing, reflecting, explaining]

Investigate the nature and extent of Spanish language use in both Australian and global contexts
[Key concepts: community, arts, cuisine; Key processes: researching, analysing, classifying]

Role of language and culture

Reflect on how cultural values and ideas are embedded in language and influence intercultural interactions and experiences
[Key concepts: interpretation, cultural expression; Key processes: reflecting, comparing, analysing]

By the end of Year 8, students use written and spoken Spanish for classroom interactions, to carry out transactions and to exchange views and experiences with peers and others in a range of contexts. They use rehearsed and spontaneous language to give and follow instructions and engage in discussions, such as expressing or rejecting points of view (for example, ¿Estás de acuerdo?, verdadero/falso, ¿qué te parece?, ¿cuándo?, ¿cómo?, ¿por qué?). They apply appropriate pronunciation and rhythm in spoken Spanish to a range of sentence types (for example, ¿Nos vamos?, ¡Nos vamos!, Pasó por aquí/Paso por aquí), and use interrogative and imperative moods (for example, ¿Has comido? ¡Abre la puerta!). They locate, summarise and analyse information and ideas on topics of interest from a range of texts, and communicate information, different perspectives and their own opinions such as a mí me parece…, using different modes of presentation. They describe their responses to different imaginative texts by expressing opinions (for example, en mi opinión, personalmente yo prefiero, estoy de acuerdo), stating preferences (for example, después de pensarlo, yo…, prefiero más bien…es buena/mala idea), and comparing ways in which people, places and experiences are represented (for example, mejor que… peor que….más… menos). They draw on past experiences or future possibilities to create imaginative texts using regular (for example, caminar, beber, vivir) and irregular verbs (for example, estar, tener, ir) in a range of tenses including present (vivo), present perfect (he vivido), preterite (viví), imperfect (vivía) and future (viviré). They use descriptive vocabulary, such as numbers, adjectives (for example, generoso, simpático, listo, amistoso, azul, rosa, café) and adverbs (for example, generalmente, raramente, nunca), to extend and elaborate their texts. They use cohesive devices such as y, o, porque, cuando, por eso, pero, puesto que, debido a, y, pues, para and prepositions such as antes del atardecer, dentro de la casa in own language production to create cohesion. Students translate texts on familiar topics and produce texts in Spanish and English, comparing their different versions and considering possible explanations for variations. When participating in intercultural experiences they identify similarities and differences in language use and cultural expression. They identify significant people, places, events and influences in their lives and explain why these are important to their own sense of identity.

Students know that in Spanish there are words that are spelled and pronounced the same but that have different meanings, such as pila (pile or battery), and that a word often takes on a different meaning when an accent is added, for example, papá (‘father’) and papa (‘potato’), and the definite article el and pronoun él (‘he’ or ‘him’). They use metalanguage to explain features of language, texts and grammar and to identify how text structures and language features vary between different types of texts. Students explain how elements of communication such as gestures, facial expressions or the use of silence vary according to context, situation and relationships. They identify how Spanish both influences and is influenced by other languages and is spoken in a variety of forms in communities around the world. They explain why meanings and reactions vary according to the cultural assumptions that people bring to intercultural experiences and interactions.

Years 7 and 8

The nature of the learners

The transition to secondary schooling involves social and academic demands that coincide with a period of maturational and physical change. Learners are adjusting to a new school culture with sharper divisions between curriculum areas. There is a need for continuity through change in relation to their language learning. Learners at this level may find themselves in classes that include learners with a range of previous experience with Turkish language-culture. A multilevel and differentiated approach to teaching and task design responds to this diversity of prior experience.

Turkish language learning and use

Turkish is used for classroom interactions and transactions, for creating and maintaining classroom relationships, for explaining and practising language forms, and for developing cultural understanding. Additional opportunities for interaction in the target language are provided by purposeful and integrated use of ICT. Learners work collaboratively and independently, exploring different modes and genres of communication with particular reference to their current social, cultural and communicative interests. They pool language knowledge and resources to plan, problem-solve, monitor and reflect. They use modelled and rehearsed language in familiar and unfamiliar contexts, and increasingly generate original and personal language. They compose and present more complex and varied texts, for example, media and hypermedia texts, shared stories, poetry, songs/raps, blogs, advertisements, reports and journal entries, and plan, draft and present imaginative and informative texts. They design interactive events and collaborative tasks and participate in discussions and activities. They use vocabulary and grammar with increasing accuracy, drafting and editing written work to improve structure and clarify meaning. They make cross-curricular connections and explore intercultural perspectives and experience.

Contexts of interaction

While the primary context of interaction remains the Turkish language classroom, learners are encouraged to engage in interactions with peers in Turkey and other Turkish-speaking regions of the world, including Australia, through electronic means of communication. Learners will have additional occasional access to Turkish speakers through media and community events, websites, social media and radio streaming.

Texts and resources

Learners work with a range of texts specifically designed for learning Turkish in school, such as textbooks, literary texts, videos, readers and online media resources. They also access materials created for Turkish-speaking communities, such as songs, films, magazines, advertisements and websites. They read, view and interact with a growing range of texts for a wider range of purposes, for example, informational, transactional, communicative, imaginative and expressive.

Features of Turkish language use

Learners continue to expand their range of vocabulary to domains beyond their personal experience and interests. They use a range of grammatical forms and language structures to convey more complex ideas and experiences, for example, by using reflexive, reciprocal, causative and passive verbal mood suffixes, Ozan yıkandı ve sonra giyindi. (reflexive), Maçtan sonra arkadaşı ile buluştu. (reciprocal), Dün kuaförde saçını kestirdi. (causative), Bugün işten kovuldu. (passive). They recognise and use formal and informal honorific forms, such as Bey/Hanım, Amca/Teyze, Efendi, Ağa/Hanımağa, Sayın, abi/ağabey/abla, hoca/öğretmen, bay/bayan, different types of reduplication for emphasis and more complex conjunctions, such as hem…hem de, ne…ne, – ki,), ancak, yoksa, oysa, hatta, rağmen, yani, –e göre. They use interrogative word endings and interrogative pronouns, such as kim, hangi, ne, kaç, for example, Bu akşam bize kim geliyor? Babam kahveyi yapacak mı? They use different auxiliary verb forms by adding verbs such as etmek, kılmak and olmak to nouns and attaching them onto single-syllable words, for example, reddetmek, affetmek, kaybolmak but yardım etmek, namaz kılmak geç kalmak. Learners develop awareness of how language structures shape textual features. They use descriptive and expressive language, including onomatopoeic and mimetic words to create particular effects and engage interest. They adopt a wider range of processing strategies and broader language knowledge when encountering unfamiliar texts, drawing increasingly on their understanding of text conventions and patterns.

Learners make connections between texts and cultural contexts, identifying how cultural values and perspectives are embedded in language and how language choices determine how people, issues and circumstances are represented. They are increasingly aware of the nature of the relationship between languages and cultures, noticing, for example, values such as family commitment and respect expressed in cultural practices as well as embedded in Turkish grammatical and vocabulary systems. They reflect on the nature of bicultural and intercultural experience, on how languages change in response to social and cultural change, and on their individual identities as users of two or more languages in a multicultural social context.

Level of support

Particular support is required at this stage of learning to manage the transition to secondary schooling and to encourage continued engagement with language learning. Opportunities to review and consolidate prior learning are balanced against provision of engaging and relevant new experiences and more challenging tasks. Learners require continued scaffolding, modelling and material support at paragraph and whole-text level for written language and for developing fluency and accuracy in spoken language. They are supported to develop increasing autonomy as language learners and users, and to self-monitor and adjust language in response to their experience in various contexts. They are encouraged to engage more critically with resources such as websites, dictionaries, translating tools and other language resources designed to enrich their receptive and productive language use.

The role of English

Turkish is used in more extended and elaborated ways, and English is used when required for comparison or for explanations that are more easily articulated in English. Opportunities to express ideas and feelings, exchange opinions and manage shared learning experiences increasingly involve ‘cultural’ as well as ‘linguistic’ choices, personal and social elements as well as grammatical ones, such as making decisions about the use of titles and polite prefixes. At this stage, learners can move from the what considerations to the why and how questions: from noticing that language and communication are culturally shaped to thinking about the values, experiences and perspectives which lie inside these cultural differences, and about how these impact on their own experience as they move between linguistic and cultural systems.

The place of the Turkish language and culture in Australia and the world

Turkish is the official language of the Republic of Turkey and one of the official languages of Cyprus.

It originated many centuries ago in the Northern Siberian Altay Mountain Range. Nomadic people brought the language with them as they expanded out to Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan and a number of other countries. Today, Turkish is the most commonly spoken Turkic language worldwide.

The first written records of the Turkish language date back about 1,300 years, and originate from central Asia. Turkish is also called Istanbul Turkish or Anatolian Turkish. As the language was developing, it was influenced by the language spoken during the Ottoman Empire. Eventually, in 1928, the Ottoman alphabet was replaced by the Latin alphabet by the founder of the Republic of Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. The new alphabet made reading and writing of the language easier and resulted in significant increases in literacy levels in Turkey. The Turkish Language Association, founded in 1932, worked to reform the language and to officially standardise it among Turkish speakers. In the process, many loan words from other languages were removed and many old Turkish words that had not been used for centuries were reintroduced.

Turkish Cypriot migration to Australia began in the late 1940s, the first migrants coming for work opportunities. Numbers grew from 1963 onwards as a result of the conflict in Cyprus. Larger scale migration from Turkey began once a bilateral agreement was signed in 1967 between the Turkish and Australian governments. Migration from Turkey continued in the 1980s, involving family reunion programs and an increase in general skilled and educational migration. While more than half of the migrant population settled in Victoria, mostly in Melbourne, significant numbers also settled in Sydney, New South Wales (NSW), and smaller numbers in other states and territories. Turkish is a strong community language in many major Australian cities and in regional centres, such as Mildura and Shepparton in Victoria.

According to the Australian Census, in 2011 there were 59,624 Turkish speakers in Australia. The Turkish-speaking community in Australia includes people from Turkey, Cyprus, Bulgaria, Western Thrace and smaller groups from other Turkic backgrounds.

The campaign of the Gallipoli Peninsula during World War I laid the foundations of what later developed as strong, steadily growing Australian–Turkish connections. Tens of thousands of Australians, including Turkish Australians, visit Gallipoli each year to pay tribute and to gain understanding of shared Australian–Turkish history. The two countries enjoy strong contemporary connections, characterised by productive and steadily developing economic and bilateral trade relationships, cultural exchange and consular cooperation.

The place of the Turkish language in Australian education

Turkish has been taught in Australian schools since the 1950s. Originally offered by community-based organisations, it became part of the mainstream school curriculum in Victoria and NSW in the early 1970s.

Enrolments in Turkish language classes in some government and non-government schools and in community language school programs in Victoria and NSW have increased in recent years. Some students from non-Turkish backgrounds now learn Turkish as a second language in school, and community-based organisations such as the Council of Adult Education offer Turkish language classes for adult learners wishing to develop their language skills in particular domains of Turkish language use.

The nature of Turkish language learning

Turkish is a phonetic language with 29 letters derived from the Latin alphabet. Each letter represents only one sound. The decoding of Turkish words is assisted by a familiarity with English or other languages that use the Latin alphabet. Learning Turkish is also aided by the regularity of the grammatical system and the agglutinated nature of the language (that is, the addition of suffixes to root words regulates grammatical elements and generates new words and meanings, for example, the root word gör (see) becomes görmek (to see) and gördüm (I saw)).

While Turkish uses the same Latin alphabet as English, the pronunciation of some letters differs significantly. The use of diacritics on some letters represents an extra complexity. While the grammatical system is comparatively regular, there are differences between it and languages spoken by some learners, for example, the lack of gender forms and articles such as ‘the’ in English. The Turkish word order is subject + object + verb; however, this may change in spoken language or when there is variation in required emphasis or meaning, as when the word that is emphasised in terms of meaning is placed closest to the verb.

The diversity of learners of Turkish

The Australian Curriculum: Languages, Foundation – Year 10 (F–10) for Turkish is pitched to background learners, the dominant cohort of learners in the current Australian context for whom Turkish is a background but not necessarily the first language. Some students speak Turkish at home and have strong connections to mainland Turkey, Cyprus and Turkic countries; others are second- or third-generation Turkish Australians, with varying degrees of knowledge of Turkish language and culture; others are members of bicultural families, who may use some Turkish at home.

Small numbers of students from other language backgrounds may be studying Turkish in schools. For such learners, Turkish will represent similar challenges to those which frame their experience of learning English as their language of schooling. Teachers will use the Turkish F–10 curriculum to cater for learners of different backgrounds by making appropriate adjustments to differentiate learning experiences for these students.

The Australian Curriculum: Languages – Turkish has been developed according to two learning sequences: Foundation – Year 10, and Years 7–10 (Year 7 entry). Teachers will use the curriculum to cater for learners of different backgrounds by making appropriate adjustments to differentiate learning experiences for these students.

The intercultural language learning orientation of the curriculum explores the cultural dimension that shapes and is shaped by languages. Background language learners of Turkish already have lived experience of this relationship, ‘living between’ Turkish and English in the Australian context. The curriculum gives students opportunities for analysis, explicit focus and reflection on this lived experience and further opportunities to participate in intercultural experiences, to extend their ways of perceiving and being in the world, and to understand themselves as culturally, biculturally and interculturally situated.

Socialising

Initiate and sustain a range of spoken and written social interactions and personal reflections, including discussion of their experiences as members of different friendship groups or language communities
[Key concepts: communication, friendship, perspective; Key processes: discussing, comparing, responding]

Engage in shared activities in real or imagined situations that involve planning, transacting, negotiating, and taking action
[Key concepts: negotiation, planning, responsibility, collaboration; Key processes: discussing, selecting, designing]

Interact with peers and teachers to complete learning activities and to support their own and others’ learning, by managing debate and discussion, checking understanding and reflecting on their learning
[Key concepts: collaboration, response; Key processes: discussing, responding, providing feedback]

Informing

Access, collate and analyse information from different print, digital and visual sources to develop deeper understanding of events, personalities or circumstances
[Key concepts: data, context, representation; Key processes: researching, comparing, analysing, presenting, profiling]

Present information and personal perspectives on issues of local or global interest, using a range of spoken, written and multimodal forms
[Key concepts: action, experience, cultural expression; Key processes: summarising, reporting, comparing, presenting]

Creating

Interpret and compare representations of values, characters and events in a range of traditional and contemporary imaginative texts
[Key concepts: theme, representation, values, concept; Key processes: comparing, analysing, identifying; Key text types: cartoons, song lyrics, stories, films]

Present, reinterpret or create alternative versions of songs, images or stories, adapting events or characters to different modes or cultural contexts
[Key concepts: creativity, characterisation, imagination, emotion; Key processes: adapting, composing, performing; Key text types: sketches, drama, songs, stories, cartoons]

Translating

Translate and interpret short texts from Turkish into English and vice versa, comparing versions and considering how to explain elements that involve cultural knowledge or understanding
[Key concepts: meaning, equivalence, culture, translation; Key processes: translating, approximating, explaining, comparing]

Produce short bilingual texts such as digital stories, comics, blogs and contributions to newsletters or websites which capture the experience of ‘living between languages’
[Key concepts: equivalence, interpretation; Key processes: explaining, creating, selecting, glossing, translating]

Reflecting

Consider their use of Turkish and English in different contexts, considering how their choices position them as intercultural communicators
[Key concepts: code-switching, code-mixing, intercultural communication; Key processes: monitoring, analysing, reflecting]

Consider how their personal biography, including family origins, traditions, interests and experiences, shapes their sense of identity and influences their ways of communicating
[Key concepts: bilingualism/multilingualism, culture, identity; Key processes: reflecting, analysing, comparing]

Systems of language

Recognise and use appropriate features of Turkish sound and writing systems to produce texts that include specialised and less familiar language
[Key concepts: vowel elision, rhythm, stress; Key processes: identifying, experimenting, applying]

Understand and use grammatical forms and structures such as reduplication, auxiliary verbs, particles and honorific forms, using metalanguage to identify or explain forms, structures and parts of speech
[Key concepts: verb mood, reduplication, honorific forms; Key processes: understanding, applying rules)

Understand the influence of purpose, audience and context on the structure and organisation of texts, and apply this understanding to interpret unfamiliar texts
[Key concepts: genre, tenor, audience; Key processes: identifying, classifying, explaining]

Language variation and change

Understand the nature of regional and national variations in language use and that language varies according to context, mode of delivery and relationship between participants
[Key concepts: language variation, context, mode, audience, diversity; Key processes: identifying, comparing, explaining]

Understand how their own use of Turkish in social, school and community contexts has changed over time, discussing reasons for changes or adaptations
[Key concepts: language change, expression, experience, context; Key processes: reflecting, monitoring, analysing]

Role of language and culture

Understand that language is not neutral and that its forms and usage reflect cultural values, ideas and perspectives
[Key concepts: culture, the power of language, language change, metalanguage; Key processes: discussing, reflecting, analysing, comparing]

By the end of Year 8, students use spoken and written Turkish to initiate and sustain social interactions and to reflect on their experiences. They exchange ideas on topics such as Türkiye’ye ilk ziyaret, Avustralya’ya ilk geliş and offer and justify opinions, for example, Sana katılmıyorum çünkü…, Seninle tamamen aynı fikirdeyim. Students use action-related and spontaneous language to engage in shared activities that involve planning, transacting, negotiating and taking action, for example, Bana göre… Diğeri bence daha uygun, Nasıl bir yol izleyelim? Sen karar ver. They use reflective and evaluative language to support their own and others’ learning, for example, Türkçe öğrenmek İngilizce öğrenmekten daha kolay, Bu sorularda çok zorlandım, Hem tekrar ederek hem yazarak öğreniyorum, and to manage discussion and debate, for example, inanıyorum ki, bana kalsa, anlıyorum ama katılmıyorum, bence, aynı fikirde değilim. When interacting, they apply pronunciation, rhythm and intonation in spoken Turkish to a range of sentence types. Students locate, collate and analyse information from a variety of texts to develop a deep understanding of events, personalities or circumstances. They convey information, ideas and perspectives on issues of interest in different modes of presentation using specialised and less familiar language. They respond to traditional and contemporary imaginative texts by interpreting and comparing how values, characters and events are represented and present, reinterpret or create alternative versions of imaginary texts in different modes. When creating texts, they use a variety of verb tenses and moods, for example, Ozan yıkandı ve sonra giyindi, Maçtan sonra arkadaşı ile buluştu. Dün kuaförde saçını kestirdi, Bugün işten kovuldu; reduplication, for example, kapkara, upuzun, çirkin mirkin, Selma’yı Melma’yı görmedim; doubling, for example, yavaş yavaş, ikişer ikişer, koşa koşa, ağlaya ağlaya; auxiliary verbs, for example, reddetmek, affetmek, kaybolmak; particles and honorific forms, for example, Bey/Hanım, Amca/Teyze, Efendi, Ağa/Hanımağa, Sayın, abi/ağabey/abla, hoca/öğretmen, bay/bayan. They translate and interpret texts from Turkish into English and vice versa, compare their versions and explain cultural elements. They produce short multimodal resources in Turkish and English that reflect the bilingual experience. They reflect on their own bilingualism, on the importance of language in intercultural communication and how their own biography contributes to their sense of identity and influences their ways of communicating.

Students identify and apply features of the Turkish sound and writing system to convey meaning in a range of texts, including identifying when sound assimilation in spoken Turkish does not exist in the written form, for example, onbaşı/ombaşı, herkes/herkez and eczane/ezzane. They use metalanguage to identify and explain different types of adverbs, adjectives and sentence structures relating to grammatical functions, such as predicates, subjects and objects. They explain how structure and organisation of texts depend on the context, audience and purpose of the exchange, for example, beğenmiyorum, hiç beğenmedim, bana yaramaz or iğrenç bir şey! They identify and explain regional and national variations in language use and how language use also varies according to context, mode of delivery and relationship between participants. They explain how and why their own use of Turkish has changed over time and depends on context. They explain how cultural values, ideas and perspectives are embedded in language use and communication styles.

Years 7 and 8

The nature of the learners

These years represent a transition to secondary school. Students in this sequence are continuing to study Vietnamese, bringing with them an established capability to interact in different situations, to engage with a variety of texts and to communicate about their immediate world and that of Vietnam and other Vietnamese-speaking communities.

Vietnamese language learning and use

The focus of learning shifts from the world of learners’ own experience and imagination to the wider world. Learners make cross-curricular connections and explore intercultural perspectives and experiences relating to teenage life and interests. They increasingly access information from local sources and the internet to explore topical themes and issues such as friends and family, home and school, discipline and freedom, study and relaxation, appearance and personality, food and health, and the natural and built environments. They read a range of Vietnamese texts, such as diary entries, emails, letters, travel brochures, print or online reports and articles, to collate and use information about aspects of culture, both in Vietnam and in Vietnamese-speaking communities in the Australian context.

Vietnamese folk tales, common idioms, proverbs and folk songs (ca dao), such as Tấm Cám, Sơn Tinh Thủy Tinh; mò kim đáy biển; Ăn trái nhớ kẻ trồng cây; Cá không ăn muối cá ươn, Con cưỡng/cãi cha mẹ trăm đường con hư, are also introduced at this level to familiarise students with Vietnamese folk literature. Students learn to evaluate information and explore the representation of places, people, experiences and cultures in diverse sources. They use different processing strategies and their knowledge of language, increasingly drawing on understanding of text types, for example, when writing a recount or report. They produce descriptive, imaginative, informative and persuasive texts to present information and opinions on topics and concepts studied. They use vocabulary and grammar with increasing accuracy, drafting and editing to improve structure and clarify meaning.

Contexts of interaction

Learners work both collaboratively and independently, exploring different modes and genres of communication with particular reference to their current social, cultural and communicative interests. They pool language knowledge and resources to plan, problem-solve, monitor and reflect. They use Vietnamese to interact with teachers, peers and local Vietnamese speakers, participating in authentic situations at home and school and within the local community. The context of interactions extends beyond the classroom and involves participating actively in planning individual events or celebrations, for example, Tuần tới chúng mình tổ chức sinh nhật cho Nam ở trường nhé. Cuối năm nay nhà mình đi chơi ở đâu? Con sẽ giúp ba mẹ quét dọn nhà cửa để ăn Tết. Learners participate in discussions and presentations on topics of interest and on life experiences in different contexts and cultures. They listen to and view advertisements, announcements, conversations, television programs, documentaries, music performances and films to further explore Vietnamese language and culture. Additional opportunities for interaction are provided by purposeful and integrated use of information and communication technologies (ICT), for example, videoconferencing and e-learning.

Texts and resources

Learners read, view and interact with a broad range of texts and resources specifically designed for learning Vietnamese in school contexts, such as textbooks, readers, videos and online materials, including those developed for computer-supported collaborative learning. They also access authentic materials created for Vietnamese-speaking communities, such as films, literature, websites and magazines. They use a range of dictionaries and translation methods to support comprehension.

Features of Vietnamese language use

Learners use appropriate pronunciation, accent and intonation patterns and spelling in a range of sentences, such as statements, questions and exclamations. By building their language knowledge, learners are able to develop and express more complex concepts in Vietnamese. They use a range of grammatical forms and structures to convey relationships between people, places, events and ideas. They employ a variety of sentence structures and grammatical features, including direct and indirect speech (Ba mẹ nói với tôi: ‘Con nên chăm học’. Ba mẹ bảo tôi nên chăm học) to elaborate on ideas and opinions. Learners explore Vietnamese use of alliteration (vui vẻ, mát mẻ, hớn hở) and common onomatopoeic forms (ào ào, rì rào, đì đùng), as well as common expressions, idioms and proverbs, such as tiền rừng bạc biển, có chí thì nên, uống nước nhớ nguồn, to enrich their understanding and use of language. They learn to distinguish between the meanings of Vietnamese homonyms such as ăn (‘eat’ or ‘win’) and hay (‘interesting’, ‘usually’ or ‘or’), depending on the context of use. They make connections between texts and cultural contexts, identifying how cultural values and perspectives are embedded in language, for example, chữ hiếu, ơn nghĩa sinh thành, tình nghĩa thầy trò, ở hiền gặp lành, and how language choices determine how people, issues and circumstances are represented, for example, con cưng/con yêu quý, lợi ích to lớn/thiệt hại đáng kể, hoàn cảnh khó khăn.

Level of support

The class will likely comprise background learners with a range of prior experience in studying Vietnamese. Learners are supported through multilevel and differentiated tasks. Consolidation of prior learning is balanced with the provision of new, engaging and challenging experiences. As they develop increasing autonomy as language learners and users, learners are supported to self-monitor and reflect on language use in response to their experiences in diverse contexts.

The role of English

The classroom is increasingly characterised by bilinguality, with Vietnamese being the principal language of communication. English may be used separately or in conjunction with Vietnamese to compare and evaluate translations, or to express ideas, personal views and experiences. Learners continue to develop a metalanguage for thinking and communicating about language and culture from a bilingual perspective, and discussing connections within and across languages and cultures. They recognise significant Vietnamese practices (mừng tuổi, xông đất, lì xì, thờ cúng ông bà), values (lòng hiếu thảo, coi trọng giáo dục) and beliefs (đạo Phật, Nho giáo), and explore the impact of culture on language use, for example, honorific words (dạ/dạ thưa/thưa/kính thưa) and expressions such as kính lão đắc thọ, kính trên nhường dưới. They examine their personal and cultural identity and reflect on the nature of intercultural exchanges in which they are involved, comparing themselves with other people and generations, questioning their own assumptions and others’ interpretation of their linguistic, social and cultural practices.

The place of the Vietnamese language and culture in Australia and in the world

Vietnamese is the official language of Vietnam. It is spoken by approximately 90 million people in Vietnam and approximately four million Vietnamese people living in other countries around the world, with the majority residing in the United States, Cambodia, France, Taiwan and Australia.

Vietnamese language and culture have evolved and continue to change over time due to processes such as globalisation and technological change and in responsParagraphe to Vietnam’s geopolitical and historical position in the world. The lasting influence of historical contact and exchanges between Vietnamese, Chinese and French people can be seen in the Vietnamese lexicon, for example, Sino-Vietnamese words (từ Hán Việt) such as phụ nữ, phi trường and hàng hải, and Vietnamese words of French origin such as cà rốt, xếp and ga lăng. Chinese allusions (điển tích) are also common in classical Vietnamese literature. Westernisation, globalisation and technological advances have also enriched the Vietnamese vocabulary, with new words such as Tây hóa, lai căng, tự do cá nhân, nhật ký điện tử, mạng lưới toàn cầu and điện thoại thông minh.

In Australia the place of Vietnamese culture and language is defined by patterns of migration. The first major wave of Vietnamese migration to Australia began in the mid-1970s with the arrival of large numbers of refugees following the fall of Saigon at the end of the Vietnam War. In more recent years, the vast majority of Vietnamese migrants have come to Australia through family connections, and there are growing numbers of skilled migrants. The migrants’ need to maintain Vietnamese identity through language, culture and religion contributed to the Vietnamese language flourishing in the home and being delivered in after-hours Vietnamese school settings.

Vietnamese language and culture represent an important part of the linguistic and cultural diversity of Australia. Vietnamese people have made and continue to make a significant contribution to the development and enrichment of Australian society in areas such as commerce, agriculture, industry, health, the arts, education, hospitality, tourism and international relations.

The place of the Vietnamese language in Australian education

Since the 1990s, the place of the Vietnamese language in Australian education has benefited from expanding diplomatic and trade relationships between Australia and its Asian neighbours. Since that time, there has been an increase in the number of students studying Vietnamese in primary and secondary schools and in after-hours Vietnamese language schools run by Vietnamese community organisations. The dramatic increase of students studying Vietnamese reflects the growing Vietnamese community in Australia, as well as government policies supporting multiculturalism.

The nature of Vietnamese language learning

The modern standard version of Vietnamese is Tiếng Việt. Vietnamese is a tonal language written in the Roman alphabet with additional diacritics for tones. The tone system is a distinctive characteristic of Vietnamese phonology; for example, a word may be repeated with any one of six tones to indicate six different meanings (ma (ghost), má (mother), mà (but/that), mã (horse), mả (grave) and mạ (rice seedling)). Consequently, pronunciation and intonation play a key role in the learning of Vietnamese, with a clear correlation between sound and writing systems.

The importance of intercultural awareness in language learning is illustrated by distinctive features of Vietnamese such as the complex system of personal pronouns, which is vital to building and defining relationships, with use of the personal pronouns em, anh, chị, cô, ông, bà, con and cháu contingent on the relationships between speakers in contexts of communication. The frequent use of idioms, proverbs, similes and metaphors in both daily interactions and literature is another key feature of Vietnamese language use.

The diversity of learners of Vietnamese

The Australian Curriculum: Languages – Vietnamese is pitched to background language learners, the dominant cohort of learners of Vietnamese in the Australian context.

The background language learner pathway has been developed for students who have been exposed o Vietnamese language and culture, and who may engage in active but predominantly receptive use of Vietnamese at home. The range of learners within the Vietnamese background language learner pathway is diverse, defined for the most part by different waves of migration. Learners may be first-, second- or third-generation Australians, and their use of Vietnamese may extend beyond the home to involvement in community organisations and events and to everyday interactions with Vietnamese friends. Other learners may have been born in Vietnam, where they may have completed some education.

A key dimension of the Australian Curriculum: Languages – Vietnamese involves understanding the interrelationship between language and culture. The curriculum is designed with an intercultural language-learning orientation to enable students to participate meaningfully in language and cultural experiences, to develop new ways of seeing and being in the world from a bilingual perspective, and to understand more about themselves in the process.

Socialising

Initiate and sustain interactions with peers and known adults on topics and issues related to social activities and personal interests
[Key concepts: discussion, exchange, interaction; Key processes: expressing, sharing]

Engage in collaborative tasks and transactions in real or simulated contexts that involve solving problems and making decisions
[Key concepts: collaboration, transaction; Key processes: collaborating, planning, negotiating]

Interact in classroom activities and discussions through asking and responding to open-ended questions, and offering and justifying opinions
[Key concepts: friendship, contribution; Key processes: responding, expressing, justifying, sharing]

Informing

Locate, analyse and compare information relating to topics of shared interest or other learning areas from a range of print, visual, digital and online sources
[Key concepts: representation, media, leisure; Key processes: analysing, comparing, connecting]

Convey information and ideas on different topics or events, describing and comparing views, experiences and aspects of culture, using different modes of presentation for particular audiences and contexts
[Key concepts: representation, experience, audience, context; Key processes: conveying, describing, representing, comparing]

Creating

Respond to different types of imaginative texts by explaining themes, messages and plot, and commenting on characters and events
[Key concepts: moral, representation, character, experience; Key processes: connecting, expressing, explaining, describing]

Create and present a range of texts, including multimodal and digital texts, involving imagined places, events, people and experiences, to entertain others
[Key concepts: imagination, experience; Key processes: entertaining, creating]

Translating

Translate and interpret texts, compare own translation of a range of texts with others’, and explore differences and strategies to overcome challenges in translation
[Key concepts: meaning, difference; Key processes: interpreting, explaining, considering the validity of different meanings]

Produce bilingual texts in multimodal and digital forms for the school and wider community, and provide subtitles, commentaries or glossaries of cultural terms in either language to assist meaning
[Key concepts: language, culture, meaning; Key processes: selecting, connecting interculturally]

Reflecting

Reflect on cultural differences between Vietnamese and English communicative styles, discussing how and why they modify language for different cultural perspectives
[Key concepts: communication, cultural perspectives; Key processes: reflecting, discussing, connecting]

Reflect on how and why being a speaker of Vietnamese contributes to their sense of identity and is important to their Vietnamese cultural heritage
[Key concepts: cultural heritage, identity; Key processes: reflecting, explaining]

Systems of language

Apply Vietnamese pronunciation, spelling and intonation patterns in a range of sentences such as statements, questions and exclamations
[Key concepts: sound systems, writing systems; Key process: applying]

Understand and use elements of Vietnamese grammar to organise and elaborate on ideas and opinions, such as direct/indirect speech and verbs to express modality
[Key concepts: grammatical knowledge, elaboration; Key processes: understanding, applying]

Expand understanding of how different types of texts are structured and employ particular language features to suit different audiences, contexts and purposes
[Key concepts: text structure, language features; Key process: applying]

Language variation and change

Understand how language use differs between spoken and written texts, and depends on participants, relationships and the purpose and mode of delivery
[Key concepts: language use, context; Key processes: understanding, explaining]

Explore the impact on language of social, cultural and intercultural influences such as globalisation and new technologies
[Key concepts: globalisation, technology; Key processes: exploring, researching, explaining]

Role of language and culture

Analyse the ways in which choices in language use reflect cultural ideas and perspectives, and reflect on how what is considered acceptable in communication varies across cultures
[Key concepts: perspectives, beliefs; Key processes: exploring, describing, comparing]

By the end of Year 8, students use spoken and written Vietnamese to initiate and sustain interactions with peers, teachers, family members and other known adults, and to engage in transactions and exchange ideas and experiences. They ask and respond to open-ended questions such as Bạn nghĩ sao về vấn đề này? Tại sao bạn nghĩ như vậy?, and offer and justify their own opinions. They make enquiries (for example, Mẹ định tổ chức sinh nhật con như thế nào?) and suggestions (for example, Chúng mình tham gia biểu diễn văn nghệ trong trường đi!), to solve problems, make decisions and organise events and services. They use verbs such as nên, cần and phải to give advice or express their attitudes on topics of discussion. They make comparisons and state preferences using bằng, hơn and nhất. They rephrase statements or provide examples to clarify meaning, and elaborate on or justify ideas. When interacting, they use appropriate Vietnamese pronunciation and intonation patterns in a range of sentence structures. Students locate, analyse and compare information on topics of shared interest from a variety of texts, and convey information and ideas using modes of presentation selected to suit their audience and purpose. They share their responses to different imaginative texts by expressing opinions about the ways characters and events are represented and by explaining themes, messages and the storyline. They create texts with imaginary places, events, people and experiences in a range of forms, using direct speech (for example, Ba mẹ nói với tôi: ‘Con nên chăm học’), and indirect speech (for example, Ba mẹ bảo tôi nên chăm học). They manipulate a range of structures to express their own perspectives on experiences, events and issues. They use a variety of sentence types (affirmative, negative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory) to express attitudes, opinions or emotions. They translate texts from Vietnamese into English and vice versa, using simple strategies to overcome challenges, and compare their versions with others’. They produce multimodal bilingual resources for the school and the wider community, providing annotations and commentaries to assist meaning. They reflect on the importance of language and behaviour in intercultural communication and how being a speaker of Vietnamese contributes to their own sense of identity.

Students analyse the use of punctuation and tone markers in different sentence types, including affirmative (for example, Em ăn cơm), negative (for example, Em không ăn cơm), interrogative (for example, Em ăn cơm không?), imperative (for example, Ăn cơm đi!) and exclamatory, for example, Em ăn nhiều cơm quá! They identify the meaning of Vietnamese homonyms (for example, hay may mean ‘usually’ or ‘interesting’) depending on the context. They analyse the structure and linguistic features of different types of texts and explain how these features are influenced by each text’s context, audience and purpose. They identify variations in language use between written and spoken texts and explain how language choices depend on the participants, relationships and purpose of the exchange. They identify the impact of social, cultural and intercultural influences on language, and use and explain Vietnamese words that have emerged through contact with other languages (for example, cà rốt, cà phê, căn-tin), and from globalisation and technological advances, such as toàn cầu hóa, công nghệ thông tin, nhật ký điện tử, nói chuyện qua mạng. They explain how cultural ideas and perspectives are embedded in language use and communication styles, for example, the importance of politeness and respect in Vietnamese language and culture.